THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


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SOUTt    • 

^JN/VERSiT  ^'^ 

LIBRARY 

LOS  ANGELES.  CALIF. 


A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 


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A   NEW  BASIS  FOR 
SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

BY 

WILLIAM  CHARLES  WHITE 

AND 

LOUIS  JAY  HEATH 


BOSTON  AND  NEW  YORK 

HOUGHTON   MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

(CI)e  CUtiecj^iDe  J^re^^  ^TambriDge 
1917 


^^^Q>\ 


COPYRIGHT,  I917,   BY  WILLIAM   CHARLES  WHITE 
ALL   RIGHTS   RESERVED 

Published  December  iqiy 


TO 

Sm  WILLIAM  OSLER 

AND 

RICHARD  BEATTY  MELLON 


\ 


PREFACE 

In  1915  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  University  of 
Pittsburgh,  in  order  to  produce  a  better  and  more 
properly  functioning  institution  in  the  local  environ- 
ment, instituted  a  survey.    This  investigation  ex- 
tended in  time  over  a  period  of  nearly  two  years  and 
led  those  engaged  in  the  undertaking,  as  any  attempt 
at  analysis  of  an  organization  so  large  and  so  com- 
^plex  as  that  of  our  modern  American  university 
fi  must  inevitably  lead,  into  many  fields.   The  varied 
—  histories  of  our  educational  institutions  of  higher 
learning,  their  struggles,  their  reverses,  their  failures, 
Ttheir  successes,  and  their  present  differences  in  de- 
^gree  of  accomplishment,  demonstrate  the  common 
comprehensiveness  of  the  riddles  which  all  are  en- 
^deavoring  to  solve,  and  make  clear  the  relationship 
-J  which  the  problems  confronting  the  local  university 
bear  to  the  general  educational  problem. 

During  the  past  few  years  all  parts  of  our  educa- 
tional equipment  have  been  subjected  to  both  sound 
and  unsound  criticism.  Our  universities  especially 
have  been  weighed  in  many  balances  furnished  for 
measurement  and  have  fallen  far  short  both  in  or- 
ganization and  accomplishment  of  the  weight  de- 
sired. Simultaneously  with  this  discovery,  the  con- 


viii  PREFACE 

viction  has  been  growing  that  quite  regardless  of  the 
conditions  obtaining  at  present  among  our  universi- 
ties and  equally  regardless  of  their  histories,  they  are 
facing  a  future  fraught  with  opportunities,  if  only 
those  who  are  responsible  for  their  destinies  can  be 
made  to  see  their  potentialities  for  service.  It  is  this 
conviction,  developed  by  study  and  investigation 
and  strengthened  by  research,  that  has,  in  spite  of 
the  innumerable  obstacles  encountered  in  conduct- 
ing the  survey,  stimulated  those  responsible  for  this 
volume  to  publication.  While  much  of  that  which 
follows  was  originally  projected  that  a  single  better 
and  more  serviceable  university  might  be  produced, 
study  has  bred  the  belief  that  the  principles  promul- 
gated admit  of  the  widest  application.  Even  in  the 
Supplement,  while  an  attempt  has  been  made  to 
suggest  ways  and  means  of  applying  these  principles 
to  a  special  field,  the  suggestions  are  in  essence,  we 
hope,  neither  local  nor  provincial.  Familiarity  with 
the  local  conditions  alone  determined  our  choice  of  a 
community. 

Needless  to  say,  it  is  not  purposed  herein  to  dis- 
cuss the  history  and  growth  of  education.  Neither 
is  it  purposed  to  engage  in  any  part  of  the  warfare 
which  has  been  carried  on  during  the  past  decade  by 
vocationalists  and  culturalists.  Yet  the  importance 
of  the  effects  of  the  vocational-cultural  controversy 
renders  a  statement  of  the  point  of  view  necessary. 


PREFACE  ix 

As  the  struggle  has  continued,  it  has  become  evident 
that  the  ranks  of  both  belligerents  are  filled  with  en- 
thusiasts. A  survey  of  the  literature  published  dur- 
ing the  last  ten  years  dealing  with  education  and  the 
educational  problems  in  America,  of  the  minutes  of 
the  meetings  of  various  state  and  sectional  organiza- 
tions, cannot  fail  to  impress  even  the  most  casual 
that  antagonists  and  protagonists  fall  into  three 
roughly  classified  camps:  at  one  extreme  the  cul- 
turalists,  at  the  other  the  vocationalists,  and  be- 
tween and  exposed  to  the  ceaseless  fire  of  both  the 
bewildered  parents,  who  are  concerned  with  the 
problem  primarily  as  it  touches  the  education  of 
their  own  children,  and  who,  confused  by  the  amount 
of  ammunition  expended  by  the  opposing  forces, 
have  been  compelled  to  draw  the  small  solace  possi- 
ble from  an  ancient  stalemate,  that  "Much  may  be 
said  for  both  sides,"  and  have  blindly  trusted  prece- 
dent with  an  historical  faith  in  the  traditional  good 
lying  somewhere  in  the  thing  called  "education." 
The  tide  of  battle  has  ebbed  and  flowed,  the  ad- 
vantage of  ammunition  and  popular  support  being 
now  with  one,  now  with  the  other;  and  the  plight  of 
the  bewildered  yet  vitally  concerned  non-combatant 
has  remained  virtually  the  same. 

The  writers  believe  that  culturalists  and  vocation- 
alists both  represent  extremes;  that  somewhere,  as  be- 
tween all  extremes,  there  lies  a  norm;  that  any  move- 


X  PREFACE 

ment,  regardless  of  how  praiseworthy  it  be  in  pur- 
pose, suffers  in  proportion  to  the  extremes  to  which 
its  enthusiasts  and  extremists  proceed;  and  that 
while  both  culturalists  and  vocationalists  do,  as  the 
layman  believes,  marshal  much  that  is  good  about 
their  banners,  neither  of  them  command  all  that  is 
best.  This  study,  however,  is  not  primarily  pre- 
sented as  a  further  contribution  to  the  literature  of 
warfare,  but  rather  as  an  earnest  attempt  at  the 
solution  of  an  age-old  problem. 

Criticisms  of  the  principles  promulgated  herein, 
which  have  been  as  freely  invited  as  offered,  have 
dwelt  most  with  the  novelty  of  the  plan  proposed. 
Conservatism  must  ever  play  its  part.  Yet  in  other 
fields  of  activity  in  America  novelty  has  scarcely 
been  an  insurmountable  barrier  to  progress.  If  our 
proposal  be  a  novelty,  as  it  has  been  heralded  by 
those  educators  who  have  been  approached  for  criti- 
cism, it  is  novel  only  in  the  field  of  education.  The 
principles  are  ancient  ones,  long  operative  in  every 
branch  of  scientific  research.  The  newness  lies,  not 
in  the  principles,  but  in  the  application  of  those 
principles. 

In  conclusion,  we  wish  gratefully  to  acknowledge 
our  indebtedness  to  all  those  who  have  given  of  their 
time  and  attention  and  have  stimulated  by  oral  crit- 
icism and  frank  expression  of  opinion,  and  to  all 
who  in  any  way  assisted  the  survey  organization  in 


PREFACE  3d 

carrying  on  its  work  at  the  University  of  Pittsburgh. 
Especially  are  we  under  obligations  to  Professor  Rob- 
ert Palfrey  Utter,  of  Amherst  College,  for  his  inter- 
est in  and  his  criticism  of  the  manuscript,  to  Dean 
Le  Baron  R.  Briggs,  of  Harvard  University,  and  to 
Professor  Malcolm  McLeod,  of  the  Carnegie  Insti- 
tute of  Technology,  for  their  helpful  suggestions  and 
kindly  assistance  in  technical  difficulties. 

William  Charles  White. 
Louis  Jay  Heath. 


CONTENTS 

I.  The  Building  Unit  of  Internationalism  .      .      1 

II.  The  Present  General  Trend  of  Education  .    11 

•/HI.  Some  Present-Day  Influences  affecting  Edu- 
cation         25 

IV.  The  Purpose  in  Education 37 

V.  Analysis  of  Ultimates  —  The  Basis  of  Educa- 
tional Reform 47 

VI.  A    Modifying    Factor  —  Regional    Variances 

and  the  Bents  of  Communities  ....    58 

VII.  The  Unit  Plan  —  A  Unit  Equipment  for  a 

Unit  of  Population 64 

Vni.  The  Wider  Application  of  the  Unit  Plan     .    73 

IX.  Correlation  —  The  University  Unit,  its  Struc- 
ture and  Governance 86 

X.  The  Municipal  Foundation  for  the  Study  and 

Advancement  of  Community  Education        .  104 

XI.  Delineation  of  Courses     ......  123 

Xn.  Departmentalization 135 

Xin.  Conclusion 149 


xiv  CONTENTS 

SUPPLEMENT 

XIV.  The  Pittsburgh  Community 165 

XV.  The  Demands  of  the  Pittsburgh  Community    180 
XVI.  The  Opportunity  for  the  University        .      .  199 

XVII.  General  Recommendations 211 

Bibliography 217 

Index 223 


A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 


A  NEW  BASIS 
FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  BUILDING   UNIT   OF  INTERNATIONALISM 

What  is  the  proper  unit  of  population  to  be  en- 
trusted with  autonomy  as  the  building  unit,  first, 
of  a  nation,  and  second,  of  an  international  world? 
Internationalism  is  the  great  commanding  move- 
ment of  modern  times.  Given  new  impetus  by  the 
world  war,  that  which  only  a  few  years  ago  was  the 
dream  of  theorists  and  visionaries  is  coming  to  be 
considered,  by  practical  statesmen  the  world  over, 
the  surest  guarantee  to  all  peoples  of  the  inalien- 
able rights  of  man  and  of  a  lasting  peace  on  earth. 
Present  developments  indicate  that  we  are  moving 
toward  such  an  era.  But  our  passage  toward  inter- 
nationalism can  only  be  a  drift  until  we  have  an- 
swered this  first  and  fundamental  question  which 
internationalism  raises. 

The  answer  to  this  question  is  not  to  be  found  by 
turning  the  pages  of  history.  The  size  of  the  unit 
to  which  autonomy  has  been  granted  in  the  past 
has  varied  with  the  demands  of  the  period  and  the 


2     A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

growth  of  knowledge.  Neither  is  it  possible  to  eradi- 
cate the  divisions  of  the  past  and  build  anew  with 
fresh  and  unused  materials.  The  fact  must  be  faced 
that,  no  matter  what  the  size  of  the  autonomic  unit 
determined  upon,  communities  everywhere  must 
be  taken  as  they  exist  and  all  effort  expended  to 
establish  within  these  already  present  communi- 
ties the  soundest  principles  which  will  project  far 
on  into  the  future  the  laws  which  will  make  for  each 
the  ultimate  best  that  combined  vision  and  knowl- 
edge can  foresee. 

While  the  drift  toward  internationalism  raises 
new  questions,  more  important  still,  it  focuses  at- 
tention upon  present  problems  of  government  which 
have  been  multiplying  in  intricacy  and  difficulty 
with  the  increase  in  population  and  the  diffusion 
of  knowledge.  So  great  has  the  task  of  making  ade- 
quate and  uniform  provision  for  great  aggregations 
of  people  become  that  solutions  have  been  sought 
from  many  angles. 

Steadily  the  realization  has  been  growing  that 
the  voice  of  a  nation  resides  chiefly  in  its  munici- 
palities. From  the  past  comes  the  history  of  such 
independent  cities  as  Milan  and  Venice;  cities 
which  led  in  the  cultural  progress  of  their  age.  Ad- 
vancement came  then,  and  has  come  since  then, 
with  the  development  of  autonomy  in  communities 
and  has  been  largely  dependent  upon  the  degree 


UNIT  OF  INTERNATIONALISM  3 

of  autonomic  privilege  allowed  in  business  and 
cultural  ways.  From  out  the  mass  of  partially  suc- 
cessful experiments,  of  gropings  and  strivings, 
there  has  emerged  evidence  that  warrants  the  be- 
lief that  the  soundest  principle  of  government  yet 
suggested  is  the  unit  principle;  that  the  unit  plan 
has  most  to  offer  in  the  way  of  solution  for  all  our 
problems  and  can  alone  give  definite  guidance  to 
international  drift. 

Cities  in  modern  times  have  grown  to  enormous 
size.  The  soundness  of  a  proposal  must  be  meas- 
ured by  its  inclusiveness  and  capacity  to  reckon 
with  expansion.  Herein  lies  the  strength  of  the  unit 
plan.  For  the  principles  of  this  ordain  that,  as 
population  increases  to  a  number  beyond  that 
which  can  be  eflSciently  handled,  the  whole  com- 
munity must  be  divided  into  smaller,  independent 
units  with  duplication  of  equipment  provided  in 
order  that  each  may  be  allowed  the  degree  of 
autonomy  which  shall  bring  forth  the  best  possible 
results  of  uniform  growth  and  progress  for  those 
residing  in  the  territory  assigned  to  each  unit. 

The  acceptance  of  this  principle  would  be  but  the 
recognition  that  the  aim  of  government,  of  nation- 
alism and  internationalism,  is,  above  all  else,  to 
provide  uniformly  fair  opportunities  for  all  with 
due  regard  to  the  bent  and  demands  of  nations, 
municipalities,  and  individuals.    Let  us  but  solve 


4     A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

the  problem  presented  by  municipalities  and  we 
shall  have  laid  the  foundations  of  a  nation  and  of 
an  international  world,  for  they  are  but  epitomes 
of  larger  groups. 

Whatever  the  flaws  in  the  structure  of  the  Ger- 
man nation  may  be,  its  unprecedented  growth  and 
its  municipal  development,  based  upon  city  au- 
tonomy as  outlined,  after  the  Napoleonic  Wars,  by 
Baron  von  Stein,  who  sought  to  transplant  into 
Germany  the  free  spirit  of  English  public  life  and 
institutions,  is  the  best  example  we  have  of  the  ap- 
plication of  some  of  these  principles. 

In  1808  Stein  wrote  to  Hardenberg:  — 

I  regard  it  as  important  to  break  the  fetters  by  which 
the  bureaucracy  obstructs  all  human  movement,  to  de- 
stroy the  spirit  of  avarice  and  pernicious  self-interest,  and 
the  attachment  to  mechanical  forms  which  dominate  this 
form  of  government.  The  nation  must  be  enabled  to 
manage  its  own  affairs  and  to  emerge  from  the  condi- 
tion of  tutelage  in  which  an  ever  restless  and  vigilant 
Government  seeks  to  keep  it. 

j  In  a  later  memorandum  he  says:  — 

The  citizens  are  charged  with  the  undivided  adminis- 
tration of  their  communal  affairs.  The  influence  of  the 
State  is  entirely  restricted  to  supervision,  with  a  view  to 
seeing  that  nothing  is  done  contrary  to  the  pm-pose  of 
the  State  and  that  the  existing  laws  are  observed. 

Says  Harbutt  Dawson:  — 

The  idea  which  underlay  all  Stein's  plans  was  a  large 
decentrahzation  of  State  authority,  which  was  to  add 


UNIT  OF  INTERNATIONALISM  5 

weight  and  importance  to  civic  life  without  organically 
weakening  the  central  power. 

The  purpose  of  the  Municipal  Ordinance  was  ...  to 
give  to  the  towns  a  more  independent  and  eificient  con- 
stitution, to  create  for  them  in  the  civil  parish  a  firm 
point  of  union,  to  give  to  them  active  influence  upon  the 
government  of  the  community,  and  by  such  participation 
in  local  government  to  stimulate  and  preserve  public 
spirit. 

For,  as  the  old  Germanic  rhyme  runs,  — 

"  Niemands  Herr  und  Niemands  Knecht, 
Das  ist  des  Biirgerstandes  Recht." 

In  America  the  growth  of  the  same  principle  is 
to  be  seen  also  in  the  autonomy  which  has  been 
allowed  some  of  our  cities,  especially  those  in  the 
State  of  Ohio.  But  progress  in  this  direction  has 
been  retarded,  and  largely  by  the  structure  of  the 
Nation.  The  Federal  Government  has  been  chary 
of  granting  new  and  additional  rights  to  States. 
States,  ever  jealous  of  the  rights  which  they  possess, 
have  been  equally  reluctant  to  relinquish  any  of 
them  to  municipalities.  And  when  municipalities 
have  wrung  autonomic  privileges  from  conserva- 
tive State  Governments,  they  have  been  equally 
loath  to  admit  any  decentralization  of  their  au- 
thority by  investing  institutions  and  departments 
with  autonomic  power.  And  this  jealousy,  coupled 
with  the  failure  of  institutions,  has  obscured  the 
fact  that  among  the  privileges  of  the  larger  units 
of  population  which  make  for  community  power, 


6     A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

national  greatness,  and  for  ultimate  international- 
ism, none  stand  forth  more  brilliantly  than  does 
education.  And  among  educational  institutions, 
regardless  of  their  inability  to  guide  and  direct  the 
thought  of  America  in  the  past,  the  most  poten- 
tially powerful  aggregation  of  all  is  that  which  we 
know  as  the  university. 

After  all,  it  is  not  surprising  that  American  uni- 
versities have  not  exerted  the  influence  upon  na- 
tional thought  that  has  been  exerted  by  the  insti- 
tutions of  Continental  Europe.  Our  universities 
have  been  forced  to  cope  with  the  difficulties  pre- 
sented by  a  new,  growing  country  too  young  to 
possess  either  national  or  educational  traditions, 
and  to  meet  the  situation  they  have  imported  Euro- 
pean ideas  and  have  endeavored  regardless  of  their 
suitability  to  transplant  these  in  the  New  World. 
The  adoption  of  Germanic  principles  of  university 
education  which  resulted  in  Germanizing  the  cur- 
ricula of  our  older  American  colleges  was  not  the 
first  evidence  of  such  importation,  and  since  that 
time  the  curricula,  not  only  of  the  universities,  but 
also  of  the  secondary  and  primary  schools,  and  es- 
pecially of  the  kindergartens,  have  been  influenced 
in  innumerable  ways  by  Old-World  ideas  and  Old- 
World  knowledge.  Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  and  Mon- 
tessori  are  names  as  familiar  in  the  nomenclature 
of  American  education  as  in  European. 


UNIT  OF  INTERNATIONALISM  7 

The  only  tradition  influencing  education  in  this 
country  which  can,  in  any  sense,  be  termed  "Ameri- 
can," is,  if  it  may  be  so  characterized,  the  "minis- 
terial." In  the  beginning,  with  the  single  exception 
of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  the  ministerial 
influence  dominated  the  American  colleges.  This 
influence,  as  the  founding  of  Harvard,  of  Yale,  and 
later  of  Princeton  and  innumerable  smaller  colleges 
throughout  New  England  and  the  Eastern  section 
evidences,  has  always  been  a  conservative  one,  cling- 
ing to  the  tenets  of  the  past  and  receding  gradually 
and  grudgingly  into  new  sections  to  found  new  in- 
stitutions for  the  preservation  of  the  old  traditions. 
American  institutions  as  a  whole,  save  those  which 
have  sprung  forth  full-grown  overnight,  as  it  were, 
have  never  been  entirely  free  of  this  influence.  Par- 
ticularly is  this  true  of  the  colleges.  These  smaller 
units  or  parts  of  larger  organizations  have  usually 
reached  a  period  in  their  development  marked  as  the 
parting  of  two  ways,  and  they  have  taken  one  or 
the  other  as  the  ministerial  tradition  has  weakened 
or  strengthened.  They  have  either  held  true  to  the 
principles  promulgated  by  their  founders  and,  turn- 
ing away  from  a  future,  have  remained  small  and 
unimportant  save  in  a  denominational  way,  or  have 
broken  to  a  limited  degree  with  traditional  principles 
to  become  for  a  time  the  storm  centers  of  denomina- 
tional upheaval  and  protest,  and  finally,  have  devel- 


8      A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

oped  specialized  units  born  in  a  newer  age,  facing  the 
future  more  freely,  it  is  true,  but  still  loaded  with  the 
ball  and  chain  of  institutional  tradition.  s 

'  The  government  and  administration  of  our  uni- 
versities has,  however,  been  less  affected  by  tradi- 
tional European  organization  than  has  the  curricu- 
lum. Changes  in  American  university  governance 
have  been  frequent,  but  they  have,  to  a  greater  ex- 
tent, been  brought  about  by  influences  outside  of 
what  may  be  termed  the  "university  world"  and 
have  been  made  necessary  by  the  insistent  demands 
of  rapidly  expanding  communities,  increased  muni- 
cipal wealth,  the  disappearance  of  apprenticeship, 
and  the  requirements  of  new  and  enormous  indus- 
tries. Numerous  experiments  have  been  tried,  but 
here  as  elsewhere  conservatism  has  played  its  part  in 
retarding  the  development.  American  institutions 
have  failed  to  keep  pace  in  organization  with  the 
growth  and  development  of  corporate  organization 
in  other  fields.  Isolation  also  has  had  its  influence. 
And  the  meagerness  of  the  remuneration  for  admin- 
istrative and  academic  service  has  assisted  in  forc- 
ing men  qualified  by  inheritance,  by  nature,  and  by 
training  to  administer  into  occupations  more  lucra- 
tive. 

In  the  main,  our  universities  have  followed  rather 
than  led  in  our  national  journey.  Yet  here  and  there 
at  intervals,  some  have  caught  a  gleam  of  their  true 


UNIT  OF  INTERNATIONALISM  9 

function  and  have  endeavored  with  the  light  which 
they  possess  to  seize  their  opportunities.  The  his- 
tory of  Johns  Hopkins  University  exemplifies  the 
point  and  suggests  the  influence  which  an  educa- 
tional institution  may  exert  communistically,  nation- 
ally, and  internationally.  A  study  of  the  brilliant 
example  of  this  university  under  President  Gilman, 
an  institution  which  is  in  our  time  the  only  one  built 
and  established  on  a  post-graduate  basis,  will  amply 
repay  all  who  wish  to  carry  on  research  in  this  field. 
The  effects  upon  the  whole  community  of  Baltimore 
that  have  followed  the  growth  of  Johns  Hopkins  in 
that  city  are  among  the  most  hopeful  of  portents 
and  indicate  what  may  be  done  in  other  communi- 
ties. Yet  despite  this  example,  the  greatness  of  the 
mass  of  our  educational  institutions  has  remained 
potential  and  will  continue  so  to  remain  until  in 
some  community  there  shall  appear  men  with  the 
destinies  of  a  university  in  charge,  wise  enough  to 
see  that  this  most  powerful  single  arm  of  service  can 
in  no  wise  be  developed  as  an  independency,  but 
only  as  a  correlated  part  of  the  whole  governmen- 
tal and  educational  system. 

The  road  to  internationalism  lies  through  the  au- 
tonomic unit.  The  development  of  the  autonomic 
unit  is  dependent  upon  education,  and  the  most 
powerful  factor  in  education  is  a  guiding  principle. 
The  position  of  our  universities  makes  it  imperative 


10    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

that  they  should  assume  the  guidance  and  lead  in 
rather  than  follow  progressive  thought.  The  build- 
ing unit  of  internationalism  is  the  university  unit 
encompassing  smaller  units  created  for  specific  pur- 
poses, —  units  for  common-school  education,  units 
for  welfare  and  health  for  such  common  necessi- 
ties as  infant  feeding,  maternity,  tuberculosis,  and 
charity  aid.  The  architect,  the  world  war,  is  show- 
ing us  the  elevation  of  the  structure  to  be  built,  but 
the  building  stones  must  be  furnished  by  autonomic 
units  of  population  and  must  be  shaped  and  fitted 
by  the  master  mason.  Education. 


CHAPTER  n 

THE  PRESENT  GENERAL  TREND  OP  EDUCATION 

However  preconceived  opinions  may  be,  and  how- 
ever much  they  may  be  colored  by  early  educational 
influences,  no  conclusions  regarding  the  extrica- 
tion of  a  people  from  governmental  and  educational 
difficulties  can  be  drawn  before  a  scrutiny  is  made 
of  the  modern  general  trend  in  education.  So  sig- 
nificant are  present-day  movings  and  stirrings  that 
they  must  be  reckoned  with  before  any  detailed 
suggestions  pointing  toward  reconstruction  can  be 
offered. 

America,  during  the  past  few  years,  has  witnessed 
much  individual  activity  and  the  drafting  of  un- 
counted committees  to  study  the  educational  prob- 
lem. Most  important  among  these  are  such  bodies 
as  the  General  Education  Board,  founded  by  Mr, 
Rockefeller,  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  the  Car- 
negie Foundation,  the  Royal  Commission  of  Canada, 
as  well  as  many  agents  of  the  Federal  Government 
and  of  individual  States  and  communities.  These 
movements  and  the  surveys  which  have  been  inaug- 
urated and  conducted  in  various  institutions  are 
most  significant  of  the  general  movement  leading 
to  an  analysis  of  the  problem  by  a  scrutiny  of  the 


n    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

causes  which  have  brought  about  present  unsatis- 
factory conditions.  The  surveys  —  of  education  in 
the  State  of  Vermont  and  of  Medical  and  Legal 
Education  in  America  —  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Carnegie  Foundation  exemplify  the  truth  of  this. 
.  The  fact  has  become  obvious  that  the  social 
philosophy  of  the  American  people  has  been  con- 
tinuously and  persistently  changing.  These  wide- 
spread movements  toward  analysis  and  critical 
study  have  been  bred  by  the  failure  of  the  American 
educational  system  to  meet  adequately  the  demands 
of  this  evolving  social  philosophy. 

One  of  the  first  great  tests  of  the  system  came 
when  education  was  made  compulsory.  This  action 
created  a  demand,  —  a  demand  for  primary  schools, 
—  and  following  this  and  forced  by  the  graduation 
of  children  from  these  schools,  demand  for  second- 
ary equipment.  In  this  way  compulsory  education 
for  eight  grades  created  demands  which  extended 
through  to  the  equipment  which  attempted  to 
meet  the  demands  of  the  secondary  schools.  The 
struggles  of  all  parts  of  the  system  to  face  this  test 
have  continued  for  years. 

Another  result  of  compulsory  education,  not  so 
immediate,  but  no  less  important,  was  its  effect  upon 
apprenticeship.  Compulsory  education  coupled 
with  other  causes,  such  as  increased  community 
wealth,  the  invention  of  machinery  to  do  the  work 


PRESENT  TREND  OF  EDUCATION        13 

formerly  done  by  hand  labor,  and  the  amalgamation 
of  small  trades,  ultimately  effected  the  declination 
of  the  whole  apprentice  system.  In  the  beginning, 
trade  unions  in  America  were  largely  made  up  of 
ignorant,  uneducated,  yet  in  the  main  good  work- 
men. Compulsory  education  forced  the  children  of 
these  workmen  into  schools.  Then,  as  the  effects  of 
this  schooling  became  apparent,  parents  gradually 
became  desirous  that  their  children  should  have  one 
or  two  extra  years  of  education.  Then,  as  to-day, 
the  majority  of  workmen,  as  a  rule,  were  desirous 
that  their  children  remain  longer  in  the  schools  than 
circumstances  or  inclination  permitted  their  parents. 
As  one  immediate  consequence  of  this,  the  boys  and 
girls  no  longer  wished  to  follow  the  calling  of  their 
parents.  Young  children,  upon  arriving  at  the  time 
when  they  would  have  been  bound  out  as  appren- 
tices in  various  trades,  were  compelled  to  remain  in 
school. 

This  decline  of  apprenticeship,  coming  as  a  re- 
mote result  of  compulsory  education,  was  another 
social  change  which  tested  the  competency  of  the 
educational  system.  When  the  apprentice  methods 
of  training  became  no  longer  feasible,  a  new  and 
heavy  burden  was  thrown  suddenly  upon  the  edu- 
cational system.  Smug  in  its  pharisaical  position 
of  superiority,  dealing  only  with  the  gifted  and  the 
pre-professional,  this  system  found  its  security  sud- 


14    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

denly  invaded  by  hordes  of  those  students  who  had 
formerly  filled  the  ranks  of  the  apprentices  and  who 
demanded  now  that  it  find  for  them  occupations 
in  the  world.  And  although  it  is  true  that  the 
school  has  aided  a  few  to  find  such  occupations,  it 
has,  through  the  selective  standards  of  traditional 
school  life,  functioned  but  crudely. 

Dr.  Henry  Suzzallo,  President  of  the  University  of 
Washington,  has  succinctly  stated  the  case  against 
the  former  system.   He  says  in  part :  — 

The  whole  system  of  schooling  from  the  primary  school 
through  the  college  was  pre-professional.  The  old-time 
teacher  gave  little  thought  to  those  who  did  not  register 
at  the  school,  —  those  who  were  not  prosperous  enough 
to  take  the  leisure  and  pay  the  rate,  those  who  were  not 
interested  in  languages  and  books  and  abstract  thoughts, 
those  who  were  so  handicapped  in  body  and  mind  that 
conventional  schooling  promised  little.  .  .  .  The  school's 
selection,  instruction,  and  protection,  whether  exercised 
consciously  or  unconsciously,  favored  the  talented  few. 

The  difficulties  with  this  traditionally  restricted 
service  of  the  schools  is  summarized  as  follows :  ^- 

The  educational  system  sends  into  professional  life 
more  persons  than  are  required.  It  gives  little  or  no  atten- 
tion to  the  education  and  distribution  of  men  among  the 
very  necessary  and  very  numerous  non-professional  occu- 
pations. In  consequence  the  professional  suffers  from 
overcrowding  and  from  the  type  of  economic  competition 
that  interferes  with  the  idealism  of  professional  service. 
But  the  other  occupations  fare  worse,  for  they  suffer 
from  that  all  round  incompetency  which  follows  the  com- 


PRESENT  TREND  OF  EDUCATION        15 

plete  want  of  an  appropriate  choosing  and  training  of 
men  for  tasks.  Into  the  ranks  of  industry,  agriculture, 
commerce,  and  personal  service  enter  the  men  and  women 
whose  school  experience  has  directly  or  subtly  convinced 
them  that  they  are  partial  or  total  intellectual  failures, 
for  the  traditional  school  has  unjustly  measured  the 
mental  competencies  of  every  type  of  youth  by  its  high 
but  narrow  standards  of  pre-professional  training. 

The  old  type  of  education  has  been  aptly  de- 
scribed again  by  the  committee  which,  in  1910, 
reported  on  the  Newton  school  system :  — 

It  selected,  retained  and  educated  those  who  were  fitted 
by  natural  endowment  and  interest  to  profit  by  what  the 
school  thought  fit  to  offer.  Others  were  eliminated  all 
along  the  way,  but  with  little  concern  for  the  precious 
material  thus  forced  to  waste.  It  stood  for  uniformity  in 
materials  of  education,  in  methods  and  in  product. 

The  countless  hordes  of  those  members  of  a  com- 
munity who  have  found  their  occupation  solely  by 
chance  having  been  cast  forth  as  unfitted  for  a  pro- 
fessional career  and  therefore  only  fitted  for  a  posi- 
tion of  secondary  importance,  are  sad  evidence  of  the 
truth  of  this. 

Other  natural  results  of  such  a  system  are  the 
bread  lines,  the  soup  kitchens,  and  much  of  the  social 
phenomena  which  unemployment  has  brought.  The 
findings  published  in  the  report  of  the  Royal  Com- 
mission on  the  Poor  Laws  and  Relief  of  Distress, 
London,  1909,  might,  in  all  truth,  have  been  written 
of  America. 


16    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

We  cannot  believe  [write  the  Commissioners]  that  the 
nation  can  long  persist  in  ignoring  the  fact  that  the  un- 
employed are  thus  being  daily  created  under  our  eyes  out 
of  bright  young  lives,  capable  of  better  things,  for  whose 
training  we  make  no  provision.  It  is,  unfortunately,  only 
too  clear  that  the  mass  of  unemployment  is  continually 
being  recruited  by  a  stream  of  young  men  from  industries 
which  rely  upon  unskilled  boy  labor,  and  turn  it  adrift 
at  manhood  without  any  general  special  industrial  quali- 
fications, and  that  it  will  never  be  diminished  till  this 
stream  is  arrested. 

With  the  march  of  time,  however,  there  has  grad- 
ually dawned  a  realization  of  the  fact  that  the  line  of 
demarkation  between  the  professional  and  the  non- 
professional is  a  surprisingly  indistinguishable  one. 
Herein  is  to  be  found  the  cause  for  the  activities  of 
the  various  committees  and  boards.  An  analysis  of 
the  reports  of  these  groups  and  individuals  discloses 
that  running  through  all  the  strivings  are  certain 
fixed  principles  which  force  this  conclusion.  A  study 
of  recent  systems  —  English,  German,  and  French, 
and  those  of  the  various  American  States  —  yields 
evidence  of  the  same  single  desire;  namely,  to  estab- 
lish an  educational  plan  that  shall  prepare  at  each 
given  period,  from  those  human  individuals  entering 
it,  groups  fitted  for  a  special  function  in  life,  and  when 
adequate  specialized  education  has  been  furnished  for 
each  group,  to  add  as  much  of  the  cultural  as  is  com- 
mensurate with  the  number  of  years  allowed  each 
individual  for  the  preparation  for  his  life's  work. 


PRESENT  TREND  OF  EDUCATION        17 

The  schools  of  America  have  been  slow  to  recog- 
nize the  obligation  which  the  passing  of  apprentice- 
ship and  the  diminution  of  the  traditional  barriers 
between  professional  and  non-professional  occupa- 
tions has  placed  upon  them.  The  popular  concep- 
tion of  education  has  changed  slowly,  it  is  true,  but 
surely,  none  the  less.  A  new  group  has  seen  that 
the  larger  contribution'  to  individual  happiness  and 
social  efficiency  can  be  made  only  by  aiding  all 
rather  than  a  chosen  few  to  make  the  "transit  from 
the  period  of  education  to  that  of  responsible  work- 
manship in  the  world." 

In  various  communities  there  have  appeared 
different  expressions  of  the  same  tendency,  each 
modified  by  the  bent  and  demand  of  the  community 
in  which  the  educational  system  is  to  operate.  The 
accompanying  chart  (p.  19)  will  perhaps  indicate 
something  of  this  trend  of  modern  education  dur- 
ing the  past  quarter  of  a  century.  The  variations 
are  many,  dependent  as  they  are  upon  the  physical 
characteristics  of  individual  communities  and  af- 
fected also  by  dijffering  laws  of  differing  Common- 
wealths. For  the  present  purpose,  however,  this 
general  chart  will  adequately  serve  to  illustrate. 

While  the  rural  school  or  district  school,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  does  not  appear  on  the  chart,  its 
position  in  the  educational  scheme,  important  as 
it  is,  does  not  make  for  marked  variation  in  the 


18    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

system.  Neither  does  the  chart  include  the  pri- 
vate schools  and  so-called  "finishing"  schools.  The 
former  occupy  a  place  somewhat  analogous  to  that 
of  the  high  schools  or  upper  primary  schools.  The 
latter,  with  their  student  bodies  composed  of  those 
members  of  society  not  primarily  interested  in  either 
early  vocational  or  higher  vocational  postions  in 
life,  may  be  considered  as  appurtenances  rather 
than  organic  parts  of  the  system. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  communities  are  all 
agreed  on  but  six  years  of  education  —  that  period 
lying  between  the  entrance  to  the  kindergarten  or  to 
the  primary  school  and  the  beginning  of  the  second- 
ary school.  After  this  six-year  period,  in  some  com- 
munities, the  junior  high  school  has  made  its  appear- 
ance. This  school  includes  a  year  or  two  from  the 
primary  and  a  year  or  two  from  the  high  school  and 
segregates  within  its  walls  certain  subjects  which 
will  lead  its  pupils  to  definite  functions  in  life  or  to 
higher  educational  institutions.  Following  this  is  a 
series  of  secondary  schools  of  which  the  prototype 
is  the  secondary  or  high  or  grammar  school  of  the 
past.  At  this  point  the  delineation  of  courses  be- 
comes more  marked,  and  we  have  the  academic 
high  schools,  commercial  high  schools,  vocational 
high  schools  of  various  kinds,  and  in  addition,  spe- 
cial courses  in  each  of  these  individual  institutions. 
These,  all  more  or  less  at  variance  with  the  concepts 


PRESENT  TREND  OF  EDUCATION 


19 


Ago 
25 


Bankers 
Broker* 
Editors 
Reporter*, 
Etc. 

Teacher* 
Farmer* 


Shop  Keeper^'  ^ 
Farmery 
Etc. 


Higher  types! 
of  Artisans  J 
Clerks  ^ 

Conductors 
Motormen 
Mill  Workers, 
Etc.         J 


Law 
School 


Junior 
College 


College 


Normal 
School 


Academic  High 

Schools 

16% 


1.  Graduate  School 

2.  Medical  School 

3.  Medical  School 

4.  Theological  School 

5.  Higher  Vocational 


School  of 
Engineer'; 


Junior 
College 


Technical  High 
School* 


Junior  High  Schools 


7th -9th  Grade 


Secondary 


Vocational 
University 


Commercial 
High  Schools 

Industrial 
High  Schools 


Compulsory  Education  for 
all  children  to  8th  grade  or  to 
about  fourteen  years  of  age. 


Primary  Schools 
Elementary  Education 


Kindergarten 


Ag« 
25 


23 


Engineer* 

Constructing 

Electrical 

Railway 

Mechanical, 

Etc. 
Architect* 
Draughtsrnen 
Designers, 
.      Etc, 
Bookkeeper* 
Stenographer* 
Accountant* 
Inspectors 
Sales  People 
.Clerks 

I  ef^^peft 

I  Artisan* 

—  <  Supervisor* 
{ 5  Electrician*, 

I      Etc. 

Artisans 
Carpenter* 
Mill  Worker* 
News  Boys 
Messenger* 
Laborers* 
,     Etc. 


20    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

of  antiquity,  evidence  the  trend.  The  provision  of 
certain  fixed  types  of  education  and  such  speciaHza- 
tion,  by  a  careful  dehneation  of  courses,  as  will  lead 
to  an  ultimate,  is  the  educational  ideal  which  has 
evolved.  The  ultimate  continues  to  lie  within  the 
choice  of  the  individual  student,  assisted,  of  course, 
by  parent  and  teacher  guides  early  in  his  educa- 
tional life. 

This  development  has  been  inspired  and  directed 
by  the  idea  that,  "It  is  the  function  of  the  school  to 
educate  every  boy  and  every  girl,  to  eliminate  none 
and  accept  all.  It  fits  work  and  method  to  individual 
needs,  and  strives  to  send  children  out  of  school  just 
as  individually  diverse  as  nature  designed  them  to 
be,  and  as  the  diversity  of  service  which  awaits 
them  requires." 

While  this  has  been  a  recent  growth  in  America, 
sufficient  time  has  passed  to  prove  that  a  delinea- 
tion of  courses  starting  at  the  end  of  the  six  compul- 
sory years,  in  order  to  secure  in  the  time  prescribed 
for  study  any  definite  result  in  preparing  for  a  life's 
vocation,  must  continue  more  or  less  indefinitely 
through  the  whole  period  of  education.  The  second- 
ary schools  have  begun  to  delineate  for  those  forced 
by  circumstances  to  leave  the  system  at  an  early 
date.  The  parts  of  the  equipment  which  attempts 
to  train  men  for  vocations  requiring  longer  prepara- 
tion, however,  have  seemingly  been  unable  to  profit 


PRESENT  TREND  OF  EDUCATION       21 

by  the  lesson  furnished  them  by  the  endeavors  of 
the  lower  schools  to  solve  the  problem  for  the  early 
vocations.  We  have  not  yet  come  to  realize,  despite 
the  activities  of  the  new  group  in  the  early  vocational 
field,  that  if  delineation  of  courses  is  essential  for  the 
filling  of  early  vocations,  it  must  be  equally  essen- 
tial for  the  filling  of  higher  vocations.  The  attempts 
made  by  universities  to  grasp  the  truth  of  this  idea 
have  resulted  not  in  delineation  so  much  as  in  divi- 
sion and  wasteful  duplications.  Our  universities 
have  split  into  Schools  of  Education,  Schools  of 
Economics,  Schools  of  Mines,  Schools  of  Business 
Administration,  Schools  of  Journalism,  and  so  on, 
with  the  result  that  the  idea  of  delineation  has,  to  a 
large  extent,  been  lost  sight  of  in  the  inter-school 
competition  which  has  arisen. 

With  this  delineation  and  attempted  delineation 
has  come  a  broadening  of  the  concept  of  vocational- 
ism  itself,  little  recognized  as  yet.  For  a  long  time 
we  have  been  laboring  under  the  delusion  that  medi- 
cine, theology,  and  law  are  not  only  professions  but 
also  higher  professions.  As  a  matter  of  fact  voca- 
tion and  profession  are  synonymous  terms.  Further- 
more, the  word  "higher"  applied  to  vocations  can 
only  carry  temporal  significance.  It  may  be  used 
solely  inadequately  to  differentiate  those  vocations 
which  require,  of  those  entering  them,  a  long  period 
for  preparation,  from  those  which  require  a  shorter 


22    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

period  of  time.  "Early"  and  "late,"  as  applied  to 
vocations,  would  possibly  better  serve  the  purpose. 

The  error  arising  from  the  failure  to  recognize  that 
*' higher"  has  no  other  value  than  this,  has  continued 
to  find  residence  in  the  popular  conception.  This  con- 
ception has  insisted  that  "higher"  denotes  special 
exalted  qualifications,  possessions  necessary  for  an 
individual's  entrance  into  any  one  of  the  three  so- 
called  "professions."  This  has  continued  to  persist 
in  disregard  of  the  fact  that  into  these  late  voca- 
tions are  admitted,  even  by  State  license,  individuals 
possessing  widely  divergent  characteristics.  Into 
the  ranks  of  medicine  are  admitted  types  ranging 
from  the  low  producer  of  illegal  abortions  to  an 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes;  into  the  law,  from  the  fee- 
splitting  pettifogger  to  a  John  Marshall;  into  the 
ministry,  from  the  hypocritical,  frock- wearing  fre- 
quenter of  the  brothel  to  a  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson 
or  a  Phillips  Brooks.  Even  in  the  so-called  "voca- 
tions," we  find,  at  one  extreme,  a  Josiah  Wedg- 
wood, and  at  the  other,  the  most  lowly  workman  in 
the  potteries. 

Wlio,  then,  shall  say  that  there  is  a  line  of  demar- 
kation  between  high  and  low,  between  profession  and 
vocation.?  All  are  vocations  of  the  living,  cosmopoli- 
tan body  which  the  educational  system  purposes  to 
care  for.  All  may  fittingly,  and  without  disgrace  to 
any,  be  labeled  simply  "  vocations  of  life."  It  is  safe 


PRESENT  TREND  OF  EDUCATION        23 

to  believe  that  at  no  far  distant  date  the  ultimate 
recognition  of  the  application  of  the  term  "voca- 
tional" to  all  earning  professions  will  come.  And 
when  that  time  arrives,  the  knowledge  that  the  same 
fundamental  laws  permeate  the  entire  system  will 
break  upon  the  minds  of  all  gladiators  in  the  present 
vocational  and  classical  combat. 

It  is  these  tendencies,  together  with  the  failure  of 
educators  generally  to  realize  the  broad  applicability 
of  the  word  "vocational,"  which  have  divided  those 
who  are  interested  in  education  into  two  groups,  each 
warring  with,  and  often  abusing,  the  other.  The  so- 
called  "cultural "  group  which  has  come  through  the 
ministerial  institutions  of  the  past  has  endeavored 
not  only  to  retain  the  ancient  classical  traditions,  but 
also  to  resist  even  the  truths  presented  by  the  present 
vociferous  group  in  education  known  as  the  "voca- 
tionalists."  The  latter  spends  most  of  its  argumen- 
tative power  in  decrying  the  cultural  which  now 
resides  comfortably  housed  within  the  walls  of  the 
colleges  and  those  unspecialized  institutions  which 
feed  them.  Across  innumerable  pages  of  recent  educa- 
tional history  these  two  warring  factions  have  rioted 
waist-deep  in  ink,  and  as  yet  no  neutral  has  appeared 
either  strong  enough  to  compel  arbitration  or  clear- 
visioned  enough  to  see  that  absolute  victory  for 
either  party  would  mean  the  ultimate  loss  of  much 
that  is  good  in  both.  The  impetus  of  the  revolution 


24    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

has  so  obfuscated  the  truth  that  but  one  fact  now  re- 
mains clear  for  non-partisans  —  and  that  is,  that  the 
time  has  come  for  a  careful  readjustment.  The  way 
must  be  chosen  and  carefully  picked  between  these 
warring  groups,  and  a  complete  realignment  of  our 
whole  educational  system  must  be  undertaken  in 
order  that  that  system  may  meet  the  present  de- 
mands of  each  community  so  that  it  may  take  its 
proper  place  and  fulfill  its  proper  function  in  the 
Nation.  Nothing  can  be  accomplished  by  crying 
down  the  cultural,  nor  can  any  valuable  results  be  se- 
cured by  abusing  those  whose  keen  desire  is  for  prog- 
ress even  though  the  conception  of  this  progress 
may  be  colored  by  unbalanced  and  biased  enthusi- 
asm. Vocational  education  is  bound  to  claim  its 
proper  place  in  the  educational  system  of  the  com- 
munity, and  this  means  that  its  place  is  one  involv- 
ing the  sum  total  of  happiness  and  efficiency  of 
approximately  ninety  per  cent  of  the  population. 


CHAPTER  III 

SOME   PRESENT-DAY   INFLUENCES   AFFECTING 
EDUCATION 

Cultural  and  vocational  warfare,  with  its  attend- 
ant conservatism  and  radicalism,  is  but  one  among 
many  influences  coloring  our  present-day  system  of 
education  and  making  readjustment  difficult.  Others 
there  are  of  equal  importance,  and  all  raise  questions 
which  demand  definite  answers  before  the  larger, 
inclusive  problem  can  be  solved. 

Perhaps  the  most  serious  among  these  influences, 
and  one  which  is  at  present  vitiating  many  attempts 
at  honest  reconstruction,  is  the  political.  This  octo- 
pus, which  has  thrown  its  sucking  arms  about  so  many 
of  our  American  universities,  has  found  their  pecul- 
iar sustenance  highly  conducive  to  its  own  growth. 
Politicians,  eager  for  office  and  consequently  desirous 
of  pleasing  their  constituency,  have  not  scrupled  at 
the  effect  which  the  gratification  of  private  desires 
might  produce  upon  the  educational  system.  Senato- 
rial scholarships  have  furnished  for  the  politicians  a 
ready  and  not  insignificant  avenue  of  approach  to  the 
coveted  position  of  influence  and  have  aided  not  a 
little  in  placing  the  cross  in  a  particular  circle  on 
the  ballot.    Nor  are  scholarships  meted  out  only  to 


26    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

Senators.  Almost  any  member  of  the  State's  political 
brood  may  share  in  the  allotment.  Rarely  have  the 
standards  o£  measurement  been  true  ones,  and,  when 
evil  results  have  followed,  legislative  patronage,  the 
fear  of  jeopardizing  personal  positions  by  offending 
any  part  of  a  constituency,  has  rendered  politicians 
unwilling  to  make  any  efforts  toward  reform  even 
though  the  evidence  of  the  necessity  for  such  reform 
has  been  furnished  in  abundance.  Reforms  from 
within  the  institutions  themselves  have  likewise  not 
been  forthcoming  because  of  the  subservience  to 
groups  of  none  too  well-educated  and  none  too  ethi- 
cal legislators.  The  American  university  has  become 
a  powerful  political  factor,  and  the  larger  the  institu- 
tion, the  greater  the  power  exercised.  An  increase 
in  the  size  of  the  university,  therefore,  has  corre- 
spondingly increased  the  strength  of  this  arm  for 
political  service. 

It  has,  therefore,  developed  that  in  those  com- 
munities where  institutional  maintenance  is  largely 
dependent  on  State  appropriations,  the  weightiest 
argument  for  State  aid,  so  called,  has  come  to  be 
numbers  of  students.  The  rapid  growth  of  State 
universities  has  given  evidence  of  this,  and,  in  most 
instances,  the  enrollment  in  such  institutions  has  been 
swelled  by  competition  for  the  supply  which  should 
have  been  cared  for  in  part  by  other  institutions 
of  special  character.   These,  because  of  their  special 


SOME  PRESENT-DAY  INFLUENCES       27 

nature,  have  been  constitutionally  unfitted  to  exert 
strong  influence  upon  legislators  and  have,  therefore, 
been  unattractive  as  a  field  for  political  exploitation. 

Scripturally  sound  as  the  policy  of  the  State  has 
been  in  ordering  that  to  those  institutions  that  have 
shall  be  given,  it  has  been  educationally  unfortunate 
for  those  members  of  society  caught  in  the  drag-net 
of  such  institutions  as  have  for  their  policy  quan- 
tity rather  than  quality.  So  from  this  situation  has 
arisen  the  first  of  our  questions  —  one  which  must 
be  answered  by  the  trustees  of  every  American  uni- 
versity; namely.  How  much  shall  the  organization 
exert  itself  to  increase  its  numbers  to  the  sacrifice  of 
intensive  work  in  the  fundamental  fields  of  knowl- 
edge? 

Associated  with  this  problem  is  the  serious  physi- 
cal difliculty  in  the  relation  of  the  existing  physi- 
cal structures  to  a  population  which  increases  too 
rapidly  for  housing.  In  the  case  of  many  universi- 
ties, which,  owing  to  political  influence  and  conse- 
quent State  aid,  have  abnormally  expanded,  the 
physical  plant  has  failed  to  keep  pace  in  growth  with 
the  increase  in  numbers,  and  ochlesis  and  injustice  to 
students  from  lack  of  facilities  have  been  entailed. 
In  a  country  where  universal  education  is  the  rule, 
it  is  not  surprising  to  find  the  university  organization 
falling  far  below  that  point  of  eflSciency  which  rap- 
idly increasing  numbers  make  imperative.  The  mis- 


28    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

use  of  space  and  the  failure  to  utilize  space  and  time 
have  inevitably  followed  as  one  of  the  minor,  but 
nevertheless  important,  results  of  unprecedented 
growth.  Coupled  with  this,  the  weight  of  priority  of 
position  and  occupancy  has  been  an  influence  no  less 
marked  in  lowering  institutional  standards,  and  has 
crippled  ejQBciency  for  years.  For  example,  the  School 
of  Mines  in  the  University  of  Pittsburgh  has  per- 
sisted with  meager  equipment  and  high  operative 
expenses,  although  there  has  grown  up  in  the  com- 
munity not  only  avery  ejQSciently  equipped  technical 
school,  but  also  a  nearly  completed  Federal  Bureau  of 
Mines.  The  School  of  Mines  makes  as  its  sole  claim 
for  preemption  of  subjects,  priority  of  existence.  As 
a  counter-example,  the  fate  of  the  Library  School  of 
Drexel  Institute  may  be  cited.  This  school,  which 
had  outlived  its  greatest  usefulness,  the  authorities 
dissolved.  Such  praiseworthy  action  as  that  of  the 
trustees  of  Drexel  unfortunately  stands  out,  however, 
as  an  exceptional  example  of  wisdom.         -  "  - 

The  experiments  in  Gary  and  in  New  York  called 
attention  to  the  evils  in  that  ordinance  of  antiquity 
which  decreed  that  buildings  should  be  used  only 
from  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  three  or  four 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  with  an  hour  and  a  half  in- 
termission, and  proved  the  feasibility  of  working  the 
educational  plant  for  night  school  and  social  center 
activities  for  many  more  hours.  Such  utilization  of 


SOME  PRESENT-DAY  INFLUENCES       29 

space  to  the  maximum  is  important,  not  only  in  its 
effect  upon  cost  of  operation  touching  primarily  the 
taxpayers  of  the  community,  but  also  upon  the  stu- 
dents and  the  nature  of  the  work  itself. 

Of  greater  importance  than  the  saving  of  space  and 
time  were  the  changes  which  made  the  utilization 
possible,  namely,  the  delineation  of  courses  leading 
to  definite  ultimates.  This  aspect,  which  has  pre- 
sented itself  as  yet  only  in  this  small  yet  significant 
way,  has  scarcely  been  clearly  recognized.  It  does, 
however,  offer  the  second  question  which  demands 
an  answer;  namely.  What  must  form  the  basis  of  a 
proper  delineation  so  that  the  interests  of  the  commu- 
nity as  a  whole  may  in  no  way  suffer  from  extremists 
who  would  lift  efficiency  to  the  point  of  fetishism? 

The  third  question  grows  out  of  the  one  preced- 
ing. The  providing  of  teachers  for  vocational  groups 
would  appear  to  be  a  duty  and  function  of  the  State. 
The  providing  of  teachers  for  those  institutions 
which  lead  toward  the  advanced  fields  of  education 
would  appear,  at  least  in  the  light  of  present  knowl- 
edge, to  be  the  function  of  the  university.  As  al- 
ways happens,  however,  in  the  development  of  a 
rapidly  multiplying  race,  certain  demands  are  created 
quickly.  Voluntary  agents  take  up  the  work  of  sup- 
plying these  demands  only  to  create  the  necessity, 
at  some  future  time,  for  dissociation  and  for  co- 
operation by  those  institutions  supported  by  the 


30    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

Government  —  those  which  should  have  had  the 
foresight,  in  the  first  place,  to  provide  a  supply  for 
the  demand.  The  question  is,  then.  How  shall  we 
arrive  at  a  correlation  of  the  different  educational 
institutions  serving  a  given  community  in  order  that 
the  delineation  of  courses  may  exist  throughout  the 
whole  system?  And  also,  How  may  we  apportion  to 
each  institution  the  part  of  vocational  work  properly 
belonging  to  it?  The  discovery  of  a  definite  answer 
to  this  question  of  dissociation  and  cooperation  will 
undoubtedly  lift  us  out  of  many  of  our  educational 
difficulties. 

Another  significant  influence  affecting  education 
at  the  present  time,  and  raising  another  important 
question,  has  grown  out  of  the  advances  made  in 
biological  study.  We  find  frequent  evidences  of 
sentimental  and  untrained  attempts  permeating 
whole  educational  systems  before  any  one  is  con- 
scious of  what  has  happened.  This  has  been,  to  some 
extent,  the  case  in  the  importance  which  has  been 
placed  upon  the  study  of  degenerate  and  backward 
children.  Because  certain  progress  has  been  made 
with  backward  children,  by  special  methods,  the 
whole  educational  system  has  become  suddenly  filled 
with  theories  concerning  the  education  of  all  chil- 
dren, based  upon  these,  despite  the  fact  that  there 
is  no  satisfactory  evidence  that  methods  of  training 
children  of  arrested  development  necessarily  apply 


SOME  PRESENT-DAY  INFLUENCES      31 

in  the  training  of  normal  children.  The  unrestrained 
enthusiasm  which  has  greeted  the  efforts  of  Froe- 
bel  and  Montessori  is  a  striking  example  of  this. 
Studies  have  been  made  in  play  schools  and  have 
been  carried  on  by  those  who  possess  small  knowledge 
of  biology,  chemistry,  anatomy,  or  physics,  and  yet 
these  subjects  must  be  recognized  as  of  basic  impor- 
tance in  the  study  of  the  human. 

In  all  these  experiments  certain  preconceived  no- 
tions have  been  put  in  operation  for  small  children. 
Few  institutions  in  America  have  escaped  the  blight 
of  this  form  of  educational  quackery,  and  none,  it 
would  seem,  have  fully  realized  that  to  devise  meth- 
ods for  adequately  furthering  the  educational  inter- 
ests of  the  brightest  children  is  as  necessary  for  the 
progress  of  the  race  as  is  the  provision  of  means  for 
lifting  backward  children.  These  sporadic  attempts, 
which  have  already  been  made,  have  not  only  failed 
to  answer  the  question  as  to  what  is  the  best  method 
of  training  the  child,  but  they  have  also  unneces- 
sarily complicated  the  problem  of  realignment. 

It  may  be  said,  in  all  truth,  that  the  best  way  of 
educating  children  has  not  yet  been  discovered.  Also 
it  is  true  that  so  much  of  education  is  a  personal 
quality  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  that  perhaps  no 
hard-and-fast  law  can  ever  he  laid  down  for  all  educators 
to  follow.  It  is  not  likely  that  the  great  problems 
facing  the  community  will  be  solved  until  suitable 


S2    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

teachers  with  adequate  knowledge  of  the  fundamen- 
tal physical  sciences  are  forthcoming. 

Research  in  biology  and  in  chemistry  during  the 
past  quarter  of  a  century  has  bred  a  consciousness 
that  many  of  the  mental  states  of  children  are  due  to 
the  secretions  of  internal  glands,  to  food,  ventilation, 
and  freedom  from  disease.  Perhaps,  at  no  far  distant 
date,  we  shall  find  that  the  thoughts  we  have,  the 
imaginations  we  express,  the  fears  we  harbor  —  even 
our  susceptibility  to  outside  influences  and  our  at- 
tention— can  be  explained  only  by  the  chemical  pro- 
duction of  our  glandular  factories. 

It  is  too  early  to  speak  with  any  authority  on  this 
point,  but  several  late  discoveries  contain  enough  of 
positive  fact  to  suggest  that,  in  view  of  what  may 
come  in  the  future,  caution  should  be  exercised  in 
adopting  any  theoretical,  methodistical  form  of  edu- 
cation. The  results  —  of  treatment  in  such  condi- 
tions as  cretinism,  hyperpituitarism,  and  adenoids, 
of  the  betterment  of  the  food  and  the  air  supply  — 
stand  as  evidences  of  the  variations  of  mental  apti- 
tude which  arise  from  these  sources  and  intimate  the 
folly  of  modifying  education  for  the  entire  human 
race  on  theoretical  suggestion.  Delineation  of  stud- 
ies for  groups,  sifted  from  the  less  ready,  chosen  on 
the  basis  of  aptitude,  probably  contains  a  better 
solution  at  the  present  time. 

Again,  knowledge  of  the  influence  on  the  human 


SOME   PRESENT-DAY  INFLUENCES      33 

family  of  extra-corporeal  parasites,  such  as  the  Tu- 
bercle bacilliLS,  Trichina  spiralis,  Plasmodium  ma- 
laricB,  tapeworm,  and  hookworm,  which  manifest 
themselves  in  various  communities,  has  also  forced 
a  modification  of  views  concerning  low  mentality  in 
communities  where  such  diseases  exist.  While  it  is 
not  necessary  to  decry  the  attempts  which  are  being 
made  in  play  schools,  it  is  nevertheless  important 
to  advise  prudence.  These  problems  should  receive 
attention  only  after  the  fundamentals  of  health  and 
education  are  fully  provided  for. 

As  important  as  are  these  recent  influences  affect- 
ing education,  equally  influential  is  another  heritage 
which  has  been  bequeathed  by  antiquity.  This  tradi- 
tion has  persistently  insisted  that  balance  of  power 
in  boards  of  trustees  shall  be  held  by  members  of  the 
ministerial  profession,  and  this  has  been  the  pecul- 
iar patrimony  of  universities  and  those  institutions 
which  provide  so-called  "higher  education."  Those 
institutions  which  have  broken  away  from  the  dom- 
ination of  this  decree  have  usually  gone  to  another 
extreme  no  less  unfortunate.  Consequently,  to-day 
our  university  boards  of  trustees  are  composed  either 
of  a  majority  of  ministers  holding  firmly  to  tradi- 
tional views  concerning  education,  or  of  a  majority 
of  capitalists  possessing  little  time  to  devote  to  their 
extra-occupational  trust.  In  either  case  the  boards 
have  remained  autocratic. 


34    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

When  the  balance  of  power  in  boards  of  trustees 
has  remained  with  the  members  of  the  ministerial 
profession,  perhaps  the  heaviest  autocratic  rule  has 
been  imposed.  The  autocracy  has  been  the  more 
complete  because  the  president  of  the  institution  to 
whom  such  a  board  delegates  some  authority  has 
also  all  too  frequently  been  an  autocrat  and  of  min- 
isterial training. 

W^en  the  other  condition  has  obtained,  the  trus- 
tees, possessing  widely  divergent  views  and  little 
knowledge  concerning  education,  while  still  occupy- 
ing an  autocratic  position  (the  court  of  last  appeal), 
have  usually  delegated  their  authority  to  two  agents, 
first,  to  a  smaller  executive  body  formed  from  among 
their  own  members,  and  second,  to  the  president  of 
the  institution.  Here  again,  although  power  is  cen- 
tered in  two  places,  the  autocracy  has  been  none  the 
less  complete.  The  president  has  become  supreme 
over  his  faculty.  The  executive  body  has  become 
supreme  over  the  policy  of  the  institution  and  the 
budget  which  bases  that  policy.  The  president  so 
situated  has  exercised  his  autocratic  power  to  secure 
his  own  interests  against  faculty  legislation  which 
might  jeopardize  them.  At  the  same  time  he  has 
been  fronted  with  the  constant  necessity  of  congeal- 
ing the  opinions  of  the  members  of  his  board.  Suc- 
cess accrues  to  the  autocratic  president  in  proportion 
as  he  interprets  the  ideas  and  views  of  his  superior 


SOME  PRESENT-DAY  INFLUENCES      35 

autocratic  body.  And  these  bodies,  when  composed 
of  men  not  primarily  interested  in  educational  prob- 
lems, are  dominated  by  ideas  which  were  prevalent  at 
the  time  when  they  were  passing  through  the  formal 
educational  mill.  By  their  well-nigh  absolute  mone- 
tary power,  they  are  able  to  force  their  limited  views 
and  preconceived  notions  even  upon  those  institu- 
tions which  contain  experts  in  all  fields  of  knowledge, 
and  consequently  are  able  to  suppress  development 
and  retard  progress.  So  when  harmony  obtains  be- 
tween these  forces,  the  president  of  the  institution 
remains  the  supreme  autocrat,  interpreting  the  re- 
stricted views  of  the  monetarily  powerful  group 
and,  as  such,  is  a  constant  menace  to  progressive 
thought. 

When  the  autocratic  president  and  the  autocratic 
executive  body  have  come  into  friction  and  the  presi- 
dent has  not  been  able  to  mould  opinion,  another 
type  of  failure  has  resulted.  In  such  cases  the  execu- 
tive body  has  frequently  resolved  itself  into  a  kind 
of  debating  club  upon  which  the  wisdom  in  Macau- 
lay's  statement,  "Armies  have  won  victories  under 
bad  generals,  but  no  army  ever  won  a  victory  under 
a  debating  society,"  has  been  wasted.  Dissensions, 
suspicions,  and  general  unsettled  conditions  with 
their  evil  consequences  have  followed.  So  it  has  hap- 
pened, that  in  America,  epitomized  as  "The  Home 
of  Democracy,"  we  find  our  universities,  in  strik- 


36    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

ing  contrast  to  the  spirit  under  which  the  American 
Nation  has  been  developed,  in  the  grip  of  autocracy. 

Truly  the  situation  is  a  puzzling  one.  If  the  ten- 
ets of  democracy  be  sound,  —  and  there  are  few 
Am.ericans  who  believe  that  they  are  not, —  it  would 
appear  that  the  application  of  democratic  principles 
should  be  made  in  our  educational  institutions  — 
our  training-schools  for  citizenship.  The  spectacle  of 
autocratic  institutions  training  citizens  for  a  democ- 
racy is  paradoxical  enough  to  be  ridiculous.  The  fifth 
question  arising,  then,  from  this  is.  How  can  Ameri- 
can universities  be  reorganized  that  they  may  con- 
tribute most  effectively  to  the  national  experiment 
in  democracy? 

It  must  not  be  inferred  that  the  five  influences 
mentioned  above  are  the  only  ones  which  we  con- 
ceive as  operative  in  the  general  educational  field. 
Nor  are  the  five  attendant  questions  the  sole  queries 
demanding  answers  before  the  solution  of  the  whole 
problem  can  be  found.  There  are,  of  course,  many 
influences  and  innumerable  interrogations  all  impor- 
tant enough  in  themselves.  But  we  believe  that  these 
are  so  correlated  that  by  satisfactorily  answering  the 
five  questions  herein  proposed  they  too  will  be  an- 
swered. Before  this  can  be  done,  however,  we  must 
pause  for  a  moment  to  ascertain  the  nature  of,  and 
the  purpose  in,  education. 


CHAPTER  rV 

THE   PURPOSE  IN   EDUCATION 

From  time  to  time  numerable  definitions  of  educa- 
tion have  appeared.  Each  has  been  colored  by  the 
age  in  which  it  was  born  and  by  the  conditions 
which  the  state  of  society  then  existent  imposed 
upon  the  race.  And  it  is  true  that  whenever  and 
wherever  statements  of  the  purpose  or  aim  in  edu- 
cation have  been  set  forth,  a  clearer  conception  of 
the  ideals  toward  which  humanity  is  struggling  has 
preceded. 

Two  races  in  two  ages  have  given  to  the  world  two 
ideals.  Wherever  the  human  species  is  found,  the 
aims  of  all  members  are  alike,  namely,  to  compass 
one  or  the  other  or  both  of  these.  Lesser  ideals  have 
appeared  —  countless  numbers  of  them  —  as  man 
has  pushed  his  way  farther  and  farther  into  the  un- 
explored, yet  all  are  but  smaller  parts  of  the  greater 
and,  when  followed  through  to  their  ultimates,  lead 
inevitably  to  these. 

All  man's  endeavors,  all  his  searchings  and  strug- 
glings  either  in  the  eastern  lands  of  Confucianism 
or  in  the  western  world  of  Christianity,  are  toward 
these.  The  Hebraic  ideal  of  duty  and  the  Hellenic 
ideal  of  beauty  must  continue  to  remain  the  all- 


38    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

embracing  goals  of  human  endeavor.  And  in  pro- 
portion as  man  succeeds  in  following  the  two,  so  he 
succeeds  in  gaining  happiness. 

Education,  then,  if  containing  aught  of  value, 
must  perforce  be  appraised  on  the  basis  of  its  contri- 
bution to  the  guidance  of  the  members  of  the  human 
family  nearer  to  the  ultimate  conception  of  both 
ideals  and  to  a  realization  of  the  consequent  hap- 
piness. 

The  monks,  who  in  the  early  centuries  sealed  them- 
selves within  their  cloister  walls,  saw  only  the  ideal 
of  duty  through  the  dark  glasses  of  a  dark  age.  The 
road  to  the  attainment  of  this  ideal  led,  for  them, 
through  celibacy  and  the  doing  of  the  diflBcult  and 
the  unpleasant  task.  The  knights,  who  broke  their 
lances  in  the  tourneys  and  held  as  their  choicest  boon 
the  smile  of  the  mistress  whose  colors  they  wore, 
who  poured  their  blood  on  the  thirsty  sands  of  the 
Holy  Land  and  found  their  happiness  in  the  rigors  of 
physical  combat,  were  in  no  less  degree  striving  to 
attain  their  ideal.  Followers  of  the  light  of  beauty, 
their  ancestors  dreamed  in  the  streets  of  ancient 
Athens  and  trained  their  children  on  the  plains  of 
Sparta.  For  the  monk,  education  was  the  means  to 
the  end,  for  the  knight  in  no  less  degree. 

In  those  days  the  mental  was  at  one  extreme,  the 
physical  was  at  the  other,  and  these  ideals  of  educa- 
tion continued  to  be  so  placed  until  the  two  extremes 


THE  PURPOSE  IN  EDUCATION  39 

were  joined  by  the  promulgation  of  the  doctrine  that 
the  aim  in  education  was  to  produce  a  sound  mind  in 
a  sound  body.  With  each  new  age  since  then  a  closer 
union  of  the  two  has  come  until  at  last  we  are  able  to 
see,  beyond  the  immediate  and  beyond  the  complex- 
ities and  confusions  of  ultimates,  that  the  aim  in  ed- 
ucation is  to  produce  neither  the  perfect  body  alone 
nor  the  perfect  mind  alone,  but  rather  to  lead  man 
and  the  race  to  that  happiness  which  can  only  be 
born  by  encompassing  the  all-inclusive  ideals  of  duty 
and  of  beauty,  that  the  two  are  inseparable  and  per- 
fection cannot  be  attained  by  following  either  one  or 
the  other  alone. 

Perhaps  it  was  John  Milton  who,  by  his  widening 
of  the  application  of  the  principles  which  Quintilian 
earlier  advocated  solely  for  public  speakers  to  in- 
clude all  men,  first  joined  the  two  ideals.  Milton 
declared  that  the  aim  in  education  was  to  fit  a  man 
to  perform  justly,  wisely,  and  magnanimously  all 
the  offices,  both  public  and  private,  of  peace  and 
war. 

Since  Milton's  time  other  ramifications  have  come. 
The  aim  in  education  is  "  to  lead  men's  souls  to  higher 
things,"  "to  train  the  hand  as  well  as  the  head,"  "to 
make  man  a  better  individual,  a  better  neighbor  and 
a  better  citizen,"  "to  increase  man's  efficiency  and 
capacity  for  social  service,"  —  these  are  some  of  the 
definitions  which  have  evolved.  All  may  be  true  in 


40    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

toto,  or  in  any  part,  but  none  of  them  include  the  all. 
The  aim  in  education  is  to  bring  man  nearer  to  the 
compassing  of  duty  and  of  beauty  and  by  so  doing 
to  increase  the  sum  total  of  human  happiness. 

The  goal  of  human  endeavor  has  not  changed. 
Man's  conception  of  the  relationship  which  courses 
of  action  bear  to  the  acquirement  of  the  ultimate  has 
alone  expanded.  The  difficulties  lying  in  the  way 
of  attainment  have  multiplied,  and  with  this  multi- 
plication has  come  an  increase  in  the  number  of 
open  roads  luring  the  traveler  to  follow. 

"There  is  no  royal  road  to  happiness,"  reads  the 
platitude.  There  are  few  unmistakable  blazings  of 
duty  and  of  beauty  along  the  trail  to  point  man*s 
steps  unerringly  and  unfalteringly  to  the  greater  hap- 
piness. Members  of  the  human  family  have  ever 
been  partial  to  the  "short  cuts'*  and  have  followed 
many  of  these  only  to  find  themselves  led  far  afield 
and  forced  to  return  again  and  again  to  begin  the 
struggle  afresh.  All  evolution  has  testified  to  this, 
but  it  has  also  borne  evidence  that,  as  a  thing  be- 
comes useful,  so  also  it  becomes  increasingly  beau- 
tiful and  so  also  does  its  simplicity  become  more 
marked.  Therefore,  it  is  safe  to  believe  that  the  edu- 
cational system  which,  in  the  future,  will  increasingly 
provide  the  means  for  the  race  to  attain  its  end  will 
be  a  simple  one,  and,  as  simplicity  is  achieved  in 
the  means  to  the  end,  man's  conception  of  beauty 


THE  PURPOSE   IN   EDUCATION  41 

and  of  duty  will  inevitably  become  increasingly 
clearer. 

As  time  has  unrolled  the  parchment  of  world- 
history,  man,  in  spite  of  his  wanderings  and  his 
yielding  to  the  temptation  offered  by  the  short  roads, 
has  advanced,  and,  as  he  has  neared  the  seemingly 
unattainable,  new  concepts  of  beauty  and  of  duty 
and  of  what  constitutes  the  greater  happiness  have 
come.  "Social  evolution,"  ** changing  social  philos- 
ophy," "the  recognition  of  civic  responsibility," 
under  whatever  different  names  it  temporarily  mas- 
querades, it  is  but  the  expanding  of  the  human  mind 
and  the  broadening  of  the  human  vision  to  see  nearer 
and  more  clearly  to  this  one  ideal. 

It  is  a  far  cry,  perhaps,  from  the  beauty  of  the 
frieze  of  the  Parthenon  to  the  beauty  in  a  public 
health  contrivance,  but  the  progress  from  the  one 
conception  to  the  other,  toilsome  and  wearisome  as 
it  has  been,  has  also  been  inevitable.  The  human 
mind  which,  in  its  search  for  beauty,  found  little  of  the 
beautiful  in  life,  and  that  only  in  what  it  chose  to  call 
the  higher  arts,  now  finds  difficulty  in  discovering 
that  which  is  only  ugly.  The  definition  of  the  beauti- 
ful has  expanded  to  include  all  those  products  of  man 
and  of  nature  which  make  for  the  happiness  of  the 
human.  No  longer  is  that  only  beautiful  which  alone 
delights  the  eye.  That  which  is  useful,  serviceable, 
and  instrumental  in  bringing  happiness  to  the  greater 


42    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

number  has  also  come  to  be  included.  There  is  no 
reason  to  doubt  that,  in  the  ages  to  come,  this  con- 
cept will  expand  farther  and  still  farther.  Yet  with 
all,  we  may  believe  that  whatever  our  progress  toward 
the  realization  of  our  ideal,  whatever  our  advance- 
ment toward  a  state  of  universal  happiness,  man's 
reach  will  continue  to  exceed  his  grasp. 

Viewed  thus,  the  end  of  classicism  and  vocational- 
ism,  utilitarianism,  and  even  commercialism,  is  the 
same.  The  difference  between  classicists  and  voca- 
tionalists  is  a  difference  of  opinion  regarding  the 
means  to  the  end,  not  in  the  end  to  be  achieved. 
Only  in  the  means  of  attainment,  the  methods  of 
accomplishment  of  the  purpose,  He  the  perplexities. 
There  can  be  no  higher  aim  in  education  than  this  — 
to  increase  the  sum  total  of  human  happiness.  And 
no  educational  system  which  falls  short  of  a  sub- 
stantial contribution  to  this  end  can  be  considered 
adequate. 

There  was  a  time,  in  the  history  of  man,  when  food, 
clothing,  and  shelter,  the  primal  necessaries  of  life, 
appeared  to  be  the  goal.  And  while  it  is  true  that  the 
provision  of  these  still  remains  as  essential  as  for- 
merly, it  is  also  true  that  the  widening  of  the  concept 
has  changed  their  position  to  the  base,  and  while  the 
difficulties  in  insuring  them  to  the  added  members  of 
the  human  family  have  multiplied,  this  has  long  since 
ceased  to  be  the  compassing  aim  in  education.   No 


THE  PURPOSE  IN  EDUCATION  43 

system  which  holds  to  the  provision  of  these  as  its 
ultimate  can  now  be  adequate.  The  stage  of  mental 
development  which  once  so  ordained  has  now  thank- 
fully been  passed. 

The  question  which  must  be  faced  then  is,  What 
system  of  education  can  be  evolved  which  will  con- 
tribute most  substantially  to  the  increase  of  the  sum 
total  of  human  happiness.'^  Already  we  have  seen 
that  this  total  cannot  be  increased  solely  by  enlarg- 
ing the  capacity  of  the  individual;  that  if  we  are  to 
succeed,  we  must  progress  by  opening  the  way  for 
all.  Progress  itself  is  measured  by  its  lowest  bound- 
ary as  well  as  by  its  highest. 

Throughout  America,  of  late,  has  gone  up  the  cry 
that  the  present  system  of  education  is  in  no  way 
adequate,  that  the  products  of  the  system  are  only 
insufficiently  equipped  to  take  their  places  in  the 
world.  This  truth  applies  not  only  to  those  who  have 
been  compelled  by  force  of  circumstances  to  leave  at 
the  lower  points  of  departure,  but  also  to  those  fa- 
vored ones  who  have  been  allowed  to  continue  in  the 
system  even  as  far  as  the  graduate  and  the  profes- 
sional schools.  The  system  has  endeavored  to  meet 
this  difficulty  by  forming  combinations  between  the 
educational  systems  and  the  industries.  By  such 
combinations,  known  as  "cooperative  courses,"  stu- 
dents pass  from  mill  to  school  and  back  again  during 
the  progress  of  their  passage  through  the  school. 


44    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

That  this  plan  has  not  fully  coped  with  the  diffi- 
culties is  attested  by  the  development  within  our 
industries  of  special  courses  of  training  into  which 
graduates  of  our  technical  schools  and  universities 
must  go  for  a  period  of  from  two  to  four  years  before 
they  can  be  considered  properly  equipped  to  assume 
any  position  of  responsibility  within  the  industrial 
organization.  The  evil  in  this  is  apparent.  The  pro- 
cedure not  only  constitutes  an  exploitation  of  the 
university  product  by  the  industries,  but  also  is  a 
serious  indictment  of  the  whole  educational  system. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  sum  total  of  hu- 
man happiness  would  be  tremendously  increased  if 
the  products  of  our  educational  system  came  out  at 
given  points,  determined  always  by  the  capacity  and 
resources  of  the  individual  and  the  demand  of  the 
community,  adequately  equipped  with  sufficient 
knowledge  to  enter  at  once  into  whatever  field  of 
activity  the  student  has  elected  as  an  ultimate,  at 
some  time  earlier,  in  his  educational  career.  Nor  does 
it  seem  excessive  to  charge  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
educational  system  to  furnish  its  products  with  the 
equipment  necessary  for  a  taking  of  the  proper  place 
in  the  community,  to  fit  its  students  to  be  self-sup- 
porting and  desirable  citizens,  to  wed  both  the  voca- 
tional and  the  cultural,  in  order  that  those  who  come 
forth  may  be  able  to  provide  a  living  for  themselves 
and  for  those  ultimately  becoming  dependent  upon 


THE  PURPOSE  IN  EDUCATION  45 

them,  and  at  the  same  time  to  school  the  individual 
in  the  duties  of  citizenship;  or,  in  other  words,  to 
make  a  man  who  shall  be  a  vocational  specialist  and 
at  the  same  time  a  latitudinarian.  A  vocational 
specialist  that  he  may  earn;  a  latitudinarian  that  he 
may  richly  live.  Only  in  this  way  can  the  sum  total 
of  human  happiness  be  substantially  increased  and 
the  aim  in  education  be  reahzed. 

The  promulgation  of  a  new  theory  for  educational 
advancement  must  ostensibly  have  its  primal  cause 
in  the  inadequacy  of  the  present  system.  The  dan- 
gers in  attempting  to  change  any  historically  estab- 
lished plan  must  not  be  minimized.  The  gravity  of 
attempting  to  alter  the  educational  system  which 
effects  so  widely  must  not  be  underrated.  Too 
many  experimenters  have  already  forced  their  theo- 
retical ideas  upon  the  trusting  public.  And  while  the 
failure  of  these  attempts  stimulates  to  action,  the 
magnitude  of  the  possible  effects  of  change  advises 
caution.  It  is,  therefore,  the  hope  that  the  plan 
proposed  in  the  pages  following  may  assist  in  extri- 
cating us  from  our  difficulties,  and  the  faith  in  the 
simplicity  of  the  scheme  and  the  soundness  of  the 
principles  upon  which  it  is  based,  that  have  urged 
this  production.  The  largeness  of  the  results  ob- 
tained would,  of  course,  be  dependent  upon  the  de- 
gree of  success  of  the  plan,  but  the  nature  of  those 
results,  whether  they  be  great  or  small,  would,  we 


46    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

are  confident,  be  only  beneficial.  Furthermore,  the 
preclusion  of  evil  results  also  gives  us  courage  to 
raise  still  another  voice  in  the  wilderness  of  educa- 
tional endeavor. 


CHAPTER  V 

ANALYSIS   OF   ULTIMATES  —  THE   BASIS   OP 
EDUCATIONAL   REFORM 

If  the  aim  in  education,  defined  in  broadest  terms, 
is  to  increase  the  sum  total  of  human  happiness, 
analysis  to  determine  first  the  nature  and  second  the 
factors  of  happiness  would  appear  to  be  the  only 
safe  process  to  employ  preliminary  to  the  establish- 
ment of  any  educational  system.  Furthermore,  if 
the  passing  of  time  disclosed  the  fact  that  a  system 
thus  established  functioned  but  indifferently  in  fur- 
thering the  purpose  in  education,  re-analysis  to  dis- 
cover the  source  of  error  would  again  seem  to  be  the 
practicable  procedure.  Chemistry,  that  greatest  of 
all  sciences,  has  taught  us  that  reconstruction  by 
synthesis  to  trustworthy  resultants  must  be  pre- 
ceded by  painstaking  analysis. 

Man  in  the  primitive  state,  an  isolated  individual 
dependent  on  his  own  resourcefulness,  attains  fullest 
independence.  Discovering  by  analysis  the  requi- 
sites for  happiness  of  such  a  being,  in  such  a  condi- 
tion, was  not  a  difficult  task.  Food  and  usually  shel- 
ter and  later  clothing  expressed  his  demands  and 
most  of  his  desires,  and  the  provision  of  these  placed 
small  burden  upon  any  educational  system. 


48    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

History  has,  however,  demonstrated  that  man 
was  not  destined  to  remain  in  his  primitive  state  of 
independence.  The  tendency  has  always  been  for 
individuals  to  gather  into  communities,  and  these 
in  turn  to  grow  larger  and  larger.  The  eflFects  of  this 
evolution  upon  man  have  been  marked.  Men  have 
become  first  interdependent  and  finally  almost  com- 
pletely dependent  upon  the  factors  in  communal 
life.  Governmental  restrictions  and  the  demands  of 
one's  neighbors  have  become  most  important  in  lim- 
iting personal  independence.  An  individual's  happi- 
ness has  thus  become  increasingly  dependent  upon 
the  happiness  of  the  community,  and  the  requisites 
for  the  individual's  happiness  have  in  like  measure 
been  modified  and  augmented  by  communal  require- 
ments. 

The  world  has  long  been  familiar  with  the  simple 
demands  of  simple  communities.  The  individual 
living  in  such  a  community  must  give  from  his  own 
time  a  sufficient  amount  for  the  performance  of  the 
various  duties  imposed  by  communal  life.  So  few 
may  be  these  duties  that  the  training  of  the  indi- 
vidual to  perform  them  places  small  demand  upon 
the  educational  system.  In  fact,  so  small  and  simple 
may  be  the  community  that  little  or  no  educational 
system  may  be  required. 

Size  ever  makes  for  complexity.  As  communities 
enlarge,  therefore,  the  more  complex  become  their 


ANALYSIS  OF  ULTIMATES  49 

structure  and  their  demands,  until  the  most  com- 
plex educational  equipment  is  required  to  meet  the 
demands  of  the  largest  communities. 

As  the  demands  of  an  enlarging  community  be- 
come more  complex,  the  demands  upon  the  indi- 
vidual residents  increase.  In  like  ratio  also  the 
requisites  for  the  happiness  of  the  individuals  mul- 
tiply. The  educational  system  forms  an  essential 
part  of  the  equipment  necessary  to  any  given  com- 
munity to  promote  the  happiness  of  its  indwellers. 
In  proportion  as  it  meets  the  increasingly  complex 
demands  does  the  system  prove  its  adequacy  or 
inadequacy.  Here  lies  the  test  of  our  present  system. 

In  America,  during  the  past  fifty  years,  municipal- 
ities have  grown  too  rapidly  to  be  either  natural  or 
orderly.  As  a  result  they  have  outstripped  in  their 
demands  the  supply  of  educational  equipment  re- 
quired to  provide  happiness  for  the  individuals  con- 
stituting their  body  politic.  Indeed,  in  all  candor 
it  may  be  said  that  the  present  system  has  not,  in 
any  satisfactorily  organized  way,  taken  cognizance 
of  the  demands  of  rapidly  enlarging  communities. 
Despite  this,  such  demands  form  the  market  for  the 
products  of  our  schools,  and  the  laws  of  supply  and 
demand  which  govern  and  shape  the  development 
of  our  industries  must,  in  the  end,  be  seen  to  apply 
equally  to  this  greatest  of  all  industries  —  the  sup- 
plying of  men  and  women  properly  trained  and 


50    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

equipped  to  take  their  various  places  in  the  com- 
munity. 

No  systematic  attempt  has  ever  been  made,  in 
America,  either  to  analyze  the  complete  demands  of 
a  community  or  to  take  steps  to  prevent  the  glutting 
of  certain  fields  of  the  market.  Industries,  it  is  true, 
have  unconsciously  analyzed  some  of  the  require- 
ments for  limited  vocational  groups,  and  have  been 
partially  successful  in  forcing  this  knowledge  upon 
the  resisting  schools,  but  farther  than  this  there  has 
been  little  progress.  One  has  only  to  examine  the 
alumni  records  of  our  schools  of  engineering  to  see 
how  many  trained  for  engineering  work  have  passed 
into  other  fields  of  endeavor.  In  fact,  one  exagger- 
ating cynic  has  pointedly  remarked  that  about  as 
many  engineers  continue  to  pursue  engineering  work 
after  their  graduation  as  class  poets  continue  to 
specialize  in  the  field  of  poetry.  "  What  has  become 
of  our  class  poets?"  facetiously  asked  this  recent 
questioner.  *'What  becomes  of  the  graduates  of 
our  various  schools  of  higher  vocational  training?'* 
might  be  asked  with  equal  pertinence  and  far 
greater  seriousness.  The  alumni  records  tell  but  a 
small  part  of  the  story.  And  what  is  true  in  this 
particular  higher  vocation  is  equally  true  in  others. 
Again  it  would  seem,  therefore,  that  if  the  aim  in 
educating  is  to  increase  the  sum  total  of  human 
happiness,  an  analysis  of  the  demands  of  a  commu- 


ANALYSIS  OF  ULTIMATES  51 

nity  must  form  the  soundest  basis  upon  which  to 
build  an  educational  system  within  any  given  area. 

The  varying  occupations  which  constitute  the 
demands  of  a  community,  when  discussed  in  terms 
of  the  individual  forming  a  part  of  that  community, 
we  choose  to  term  "individual  ultimates."  Again 
speaking  in  terms  of  the  individual,  it  is  evident  that 
happiness  can  first  be  substantially  increased  by 
directing  the  individual's  choice  of  an  ultimate  to 
such  a  one  as  actually  exists  as  a  demand  of  the 
community.  In  other  words,  an  analysis  of  the  de- 
mands of  the  community,  while  of  first  importance 
to  a  sound  system  of  education,  does  not  constitute 
the  complete  task,  and  would  not,  in  itself,  be  suflS- 
cient  to  insure  the  greater  happiness  to  the  greater 
number.  Coupled  with  such  an  analysis,  there  must 
also  be  a  tabulation  in  order  that  the  public,  to  be 
educated,  may  know  what  the  market  conditions  in 
given  occupations  are. 

In  addition,  at  some  time  early  in  the  educational 
career  of  each  individual  careful  supervision  must 
be  exercised  over  his  choice  of  an  ultimate  in  order 
that  when  he  emitted  from  the  system  at  any  given 
point,  he  may  be  able  to  find  awaiting  him  the 
first  essential  for  his  happiness,  namely,  a  position. 
The  individual  having  made  such  a  declaration  as  to 
his  ultimate  guided  by  the  knowledge  obtained  by 
making  a  tabulation  of  the  community's  demands. 


62    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

it  would  then  become  the  function  of  the  educational 
system  to  provide  him  with  those  essentials  that 
would  command  the  highest  market  value  immedi- 
ately at  the  time  of  his  issuance.  Viewed  in  this 
way,  the  immediate  object  in  sending  the  individual 
through  the  system  would  be  to  equip  him  for  his 
function  in  life.  This  function  includes  the  under- 
standing of  his  individual,  his  family,  his  group. 
State  and  international  relationships,  and  in  pro- 
portion as  a  man  understands  and  fulfills  his  func- 
tion, will  the  larger  contribution  to  the  sum  total  of 
human  happiness  be  made. 

To  repeat,  the  first  purpose  of  an  analysis  such  as 
has  been  suggested  would  be  to  determine  the  req- 
uisites for  community  or  group  life.  These,  when 
ascertained,  must  be  analyzed  more  and  more  care- 
fully, until  a  knowledge  has  been  obtained  sufficient 
to  direct  an  intelligent  beginning  of  a  realignment 
of  the  educational  system  to  produce  a  system  that 
will  lead  each  one  of  those  who  enter  it  out  at  the 
given  point  that  the  member  elects  —  provided 
always  the  demand  exists  for  that  particular  ulti- 
mate —  fully  equipped  for  his  life's  work. 

After  requisites  have  been  provided  for,  there 
should  follow  a  careful  analysis  of  other  needs 
which  are  not,  strictly  speaking,  requisites,  but 
which  are  nevertheless  added  in  greater  and  greater 
numbers  as  human  knowledge  increases,  and  which, 


ANALYSIS  OF  ULTIMATES  53 

in  varying  degree,  contribute  to  the  gross  happiness. 
Following  this  backward,  step  by  step  through  the 
demands,  should  come  an  analysis  to  ascertain  what 
constitutes  the  essential  equipment  of  the  individual 
and  later  what  constitutes  beneficial  equipment  not 
primarily  essential. 

The  complexities  which  a  proposal  such  as  this 
suggests  are  not  as  serious  as  they  would  appear  on  a 
superficial  approach  to  the  subject.  Those  that  fill 
the  mind  with  awe,  as  it  contemplates  our  huge, 
unwieldy,  and  overgrown  municipahties  of  the  pres- 
ent time,  fall  away  when  thoughts  revert  to  the 
smaller  communities  of  which  the  larger  ones  are 
but  multiples. 

As  has  been  seen,  an  analysis  of  the  composition 
of  communities  leads  finally  to  the  individual  mem- 
bers. Synthetically  speaking,  these  members  are 
associated  in  smaller  groups  or  families  located  in 
homes  or  institutions,  rearranged  daily  by  occupa- 
tions and  spread  out  again  later  into  groups  possess- 
ing similar  educational  functions  and  characteristics. 
Where  those  groups  are  segregated  and  separated 
by  intervening  distances,  an  analysis  of  ultimates 
would  be  an  extremely  simple  process.  Likewise,  if 
partitionment  were  to  precede  the  process  of  analy- 
sis in  the  larger  communities,  the  main  mass  of 
difficulty  would  soon  disappear.  In  other  words,  if 
the  work  of  analysis  of  the  ultimates  of  the  larger 


54    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

aggregations  of  people  be  reduced  to  a  study  of 
small  individual  groups,  the  analysis  of  the  whole 
might  be  accomplished  quickly  and  thoroughly. 
Then,  by  tabulating  the  findings  in  the  smaller  units 
and  by  gradually  correlating  these  for  larger  and 
larger  bodies  formed  by  the  uniting  of  the  lesser 
components,  knowledge  would  be  obtained  of  the 
complete  demands  which  any  community,  no  mat- 
ter how  large,  presents  for  supply  to  the  educational 
system  which  purposes  to  take  care  of  it.  Only  be- 
cause we  have  not  followed,  in  our  methods  of  organ- 
ization, our  highest  intelligence  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  machinery  with  which  we  attempt  to  provide 
for  the  demands  of  our  large  communities,  does  the 
problem  at  first  glance  appear  to  be  so  complex; 

The  success  of  divisional  autonomy  and  respon- 
sibility throughout  military  and  large  business  organ- 
izations should  long  ago  have  suggested  that  this 
was  probably  the  best  form  of  government  for  hu- 
man control.  Had  we  recognized  this,  and  had  we, 
in  our  large  municipalities,  retained  the  knowledge 
that  there  was  a  unit  of  population  easily  govern- 
able, and  had  then  multiplied  this  local  autonomy, 
we  should  never  have  fallen  into  the  severe  straits 
in  which  we  find  ourselves  to-day.  Also,  had  this 
course  been  followed,  it  would  have  been  easy  in 
each  small  unit  to  obtain  a  tabulation  of  the  ulti- 
mate demands  of  any  community  and  to  use  this 


ANALYSIS  OF  ULTIMATES  55 

knowledge  in  providing  the  equipment  which  would 
produce  for  such  a  community  a  supply  of  ade- 
quately fitted  human  individuals.  What,  in  a  more 
or  less  careless  way,  we  attempt  to  do  on  a  small 
scale,  to-day,  in  compiling  such  meager  statistics 
on  various  subjects  as  are  asked  for  by  special  organ- 
izations is  a  step  in  the  direction,  but  we  have  never 
yet,  it  would  seem,  seen  the  applicability  of  the 
principle  to  our  large  communities. 

Exceptions  to  this  are  to  be  found  only  in  experi- 
ments which  have  been  conducted  in  special,  and 
consequently  restricted,  fields,  and  these  have  been 
made  conspicuous  as  much  by  their  isolation  as  by 
their  success.  Most  of  these  endeavors  at  unit 
analysis  have  been  carried  on  in  the  furtherance  of 
public  health  and  welfare. 

An  organized,  intelligent  effort  at  the  realignment 
of  the  educational  system  from  this  point  of  view 
would  require  a  most  carefully  detailed  study  of  all 
the  interdependent  and  dependent  demands  of  the 
individual  dwellers  in  the  community  and  the  most 
cautious  application  of  the  principles  evolving  from 
the  knowledge  gained  to  the  system  of  education. 
The  fact  that  markets  have  been  so  glutted,  in  the 
past,  by  the  present  system,  strengthens  the  belief 
that  such  an  analysis  of  the  community  would  form 
the  only  rational  basis  upon  which  to  build  a  sound 
foundation  for  an  adequate  educational  system  for 


56    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

any  community  in  the  future  and  should  precede 
any  change  in  the  educational  equipment  already 
existent. 

One  of  the  chief  difficulties,  if  not  the  main  diffi- 
culty, encountered  in  promoting  such  a  plan  would 
be  ignorance,  for  despite  the  fact  that  no  marked 
progress  has  been  made  in  any  of  our  modern  sci- 
ences prior  to  an  analysis  made  by  the  human  mind 
of  the  greatest  ultimate  phenomena,  we  are  only  be- 
ginning to  sense  the  tremendous  importance  of  the 
principle  involved.  One  need  only  to  be  a  tyro  in 
chemistry  —  the  most  fruitful  of  all  pur  sciences  — 
to  appreciate  that  whenever  contributions  to  prog- 
ress have  been  made,  they  have  been  preceded 
always  by  an  analysis  of  ultimates.  An  analysis,  for 
instance,  of  the  albumens,  the  living  ultimates  of 
life,  has  formed  the  foundation  of  our  present  new 
visions  in  the  field  of  biological  chemistry.  In 
short,  this  principle  of  analysis  of  ultimates  has 
been  the  inherent  nature  of  progress  in  all  ages,  de- 
spite our  inabihty  to  apply  it  to  other  than  special 
fields. 

In  considering  the  proposal  for  such  an  analysis, 
the  fact  also  must  not  be  lost  sight  of  that  ultimates 
reside  in  all  individuals  comprising  a  community 
and  range  from  those  held  by  the  most  brilliantly 
intelligent  members  of  the  family  to  those  of  the 
lowest  criminal  and  degenerate.    The  undesirable 


ANALYSIS  OF  ULTIMATES  57 

lowest  we  would  endeavor  by  our  educational  sys- 
tem to  eliminate.  The  desirable  highest  we  would 
strive  to  reproduce  as  rapidly  as  possible.  The 
analysis  then  would  include  the  great  mass,  approx- 
imately ninety  per  cent,  who  belong  to  the  groups 
asking  only  from  eight  to  fourteen  years  of  educa- 
tion, as  well  as  the  remaining  ten  per  cent  with  tre- 
mendously varying  ultimates  who  may  ask  for  a 
lifetime  of  education,  as  a  preparation  for  and  a 
concomitant  to  the  fulfillment  of  their  functions  in 
the  community. 

In  conclusion,  then,  we  would  suggest,  first,  that 
the  community  which  purposes  to  be  in  the  fore- 
front of  the  next  generation  should  begin  an  imme- 
diate reconstruction  of  its  governmental  equipment 
in  order  to  enable  it  to  collect  through  certain  feas- 
ible units  the  information  which  would  constitute 
an  analysis  of  the  ultimates  for  the  whole  commu- 
nity, and  second,  that  these  figures  acquired  in  the 
units  be  carefully  tabulated  and  correlated  for  the 
community,  and  that  upon  this  knowledge  the  foun- 
dation of  its  educational  equipment  be  built  and 
modified. 


CHAPTER   VI 

A   MODIFYING   FACTOR — REGIONAL   VARIANCES 
AND   THE   BENTS  OF   COMMUNITIES 

To  the  mind  which  dwells  upon  the  feasibility  of  such 
a  project  as  the  analysis  of  a  community's  demands; 
the  tabulation  of  the  findings;  the  shaping  of  indi- 
vidual ultimates  to  form  a  supply  for  such  demands, 
and  the  analysis  determining  the  equipment  neces- 
sary to  fit  the  individual  to  function  properly  in  his 
ultimate  capacity,  one  fact  becomes  immediately 
apparent — namely,  that  throughout  the  Nation  re- 
gional variances  exist,  and  that  these  would  modify 
any  results  obtained  by  such  analysis. 

The  larger  conglomerations  of  people  in  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  other  country,  when  viewed 
broadly,  possess  outstanding  peculiar  characteristics. 
These  are  more  or  less  known  even  to  minds  of  small 
compass  the  world  over  and  serve  to  individualize  a 
region.  In  America,  broadly  speaking  again,  each 
of  its  vaguely  defined  divisions  possesses  charac- 
teristics more  or  less  peculiar  to  itself.  Each  divi- 
sion, in  turn,  splits  into  individualized  sections,  and 
these  again  divide  into  individualized  municipal 
regions. 


A  MODIFYING  FACTOR  59 

Occupational  and  industrial  characteristics  are 
unquestionably  most  important  agents  in  individu- 
alizing communities.  New  York,  Boston,  New  Or- 
leans, San  Francisco,  St.  Louis,  Detroit,  Chicago, 
and  Pittsburgh  among  our  greater  cities  possess 
reputations,  each  distinct.  Travelers  from  foreign 
lands,  superficially  viewing  America  only  from  the 
rear  platforms  of  observation  coaches,  have  been 
impressed  by  these  regional  variances  perhaps  more 
forcibly  than  they  impress  the  inhabitants.  And 
yet,  generally  speaking,  even  to  the  native,  the 
mere  mention  of  a  name  is  sufficient  at  once  to  call 
to  mind  the  gross  characteristics.  Pittsburgh,  for 
instance,  standing  as  a  center  of  the  iron  and  steel 
trade  based  upon  its  underlying  resources  of  coal, 
oil,  and  gas,  has  become  known  and  characterized 
the  world  over  by  these  particular  industries.  Such 
outstanding  peculiarities  of  our  American  cities  are 
based  largely,  of  course,  upon  natural  resources  and 
geographical  conditions.  These  factors  are  mainly 
responsible  for  our  regional  variances.  Such  pecul- 
iarities, for  present  purposes,  we  have  chosen  to 
term  "the  bents  of  communities." 

If  we  proceed  farther  to  analyze  any  given  com- 
munity with  its  individual  bent  we  find  that  each 
unit  constituting  our  municipalities  has  its  own 
peculiar  characteristics.  In  the  community  of  Pitts- 
burgh again,  for  instance,  with  its  distinctly  indus- 


60    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

trial  bent,  we  find  Polish  Lawrenceville,  Italian 
Hazel  wood,  and  Negro  and  Jewish  Herron  Hill. 
Pushing  into  the  suburbs  we  discover  that  the  indi- 
vidual peculiarities  of  such  outlying  districts  as 
Homestead,  McKees  Rocks,  and  Etna  are  apparent 
to  all  as  the  first  gross  cleavage  of  the  larger  area 
known  as  the  Pittsburgh  cosmopolitan  district. 
The  same  conditions  in  varying  degrees  obtain  in  all 
our  municipalities  the  country  over.  In  those  areas 
of  gross  cleavage  we  find  the  peculiar  bent  deter- 
mined largely  by  the  tendency  of  the  human  family 
to  congregate  in  groups  having  common  interests, 
sometimes  occupational  but  more  often  social. 

Such  an  analysis  as  has  been  suggested  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapter  would  increasingly  disclose  these 
regional  variances.  Furthermore,  if  we  analyze  our 
communities  on  the  basis  of  their  bents,  we  are 
forced  to  conclude  that  any  educational  system,  to 
serve  adequately  the  interests  of  the  given  commu- 
nity, must  perforce  reckon  with  the  special  charac- 
ter or  bent  of  that  community.  Our  educational 
system  of  the  past  has  consistently  failed  so  to  reckon 
to  any  marked  extent. 

An  examination  of  the  curricula  followed  by  the 
public  schools  throughout  the  United  States  dis- 
closes that  despite  marked  regional  variances,  sim- 
ilarity is  their  most  outstanding  characteristic.  Ac- 
cording to  present  views,  in  the  large,  those  needs 


A  MODIFYING  FACTOR  61 

which  are  considered  necessary  to  train  the  mind  and 
lead  the  youthful  Bostonian  to  the  greater  happi- 
ness, are  equally  beneficial  to  the  child  who  swings 
his  books  along  the  corridors  of  the  schools  in  Sacra- 
mento. Our  public  school  curricula,  as  they  exist  at 
present,  appear  to  be  the  only  universal  panacea 
that  the  human  mind  has  ever  discovered.  Nor 
does  this  similarity  cease  with  the  primary  and  sec- 
ondary schools.  University  and  college  catalogues 
from  East,  West,  North,  and  South  exhibit  few 
fundamental  differences  either  in  courses  of  study 
offered  or  in  emphasis  placed  upon  various  branches. 
Those  who  hold  tenaciously  to  the  cultural  decry 
this  state  of  affairs.  "This  is  an  age  of  specialists," 
they  aver.  "The  nature  and  complexities  of  our 
civilization  demand  speciahsts,"  reply  the  vocation- 
alists.  And  even  the  most  ardent  advocates  of  the 
cultural  concede  that  there  is  a  grain  of  truth  in  the 
statements  of  the  latter.  But  with  all  this  conces- 
sion, our  educational  institutions  which  aim  to  train 
either  the  cultural  or  vocational  specialists  have  con- 
sistently refused  to  become  specialized  themselves. 
This  situation  is  almost  as  paradoxical  as  that  which 
we  have  already  noted  in  the  government  of  our 
universities,  where  we  have  autocratic  organizations 
training  citizens  for  life  in  a  democracy. 

If  the  increasing  dependency  of  the  individual 
upon  his  neighbors  is  making  specialization  a  neces- 


62    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

sity,  surely  regional  variances  and  the  bents  of  com- 
munities must  be  determining  factors  in  this  proc- 
ess of  specialization. 

Our  educational  system  should  supply  not  only 
the  universal  demands  of  the  smaller  units  of  which 
our  populace  is  made,  but  should  also  supply  the 
demands  which  exist  for  certain  peculiar  ultimates. 
These,  obviously,  in  all  cases  could  not  be  provided 
in  each  community,  but  each  community  could  pro- 
vide a  supply  for  its  peculiar  demands.  The  func- 
tion of  a  given  unit  would  be  to  provide  first  for  the 
demand  which  that  unit  has  in  common  with  all 
other  units,  and  then  to  provide  for  as  much  of  the 
special  demands  as  the  equipment  of  the  unit  and  the 
unit  itself  could  bear.  For  other  special  demands, 
a  unit  would  perforce  cooperate  with  its  neighboring 
units,  for  just  as  the  individual  units  of  a  commu- 
nity vary,  so  do  the  demands  of  the  larger  cooperat- 
ing units  differ.  Regional  variances  and  community 
bents,  therefore,  would  not  in  themselves  be  the 
insurmountable  obstacles  which  they  might  appear 
on  first  thought.  Furthermore,  it  is  conceivable 
that  were  we  to  depart  from  geographical  lines  and 
to  congregate  all  communities  on  the  basis  of  their 
bents,  realignment  itself  would  not  be  a  complex 
process.  Only  when  these  smaller  units  of  peculiar 
bent  were  welded  into  larger  units  of  population 
would  the  delineation  of  the  bent  of  the  larger  aggre- 


A  MODIFYING  FACTOR  63 

gallons  require  the  most  painstaking  labor  of  those 
engaged  in  making  the  analysis. 

At  the  present  time  there  is  more  variety  in  our 
unity  than  there  is  unity  in  our  variety,  and  while 
this  is  recognized,  we  have  nevertheless  endeavored 
to  foster  a  uniform  system  of  education  which  makes 
no  marked  attempts  to  recognize  the  demands 
which  regional  differences  must  place  upon  it.  All 
things  considered,  it  seems  the  essence  of  truth  to 
maintain  that  the  only  uniformity  possible  in  a 
national  educational  system  must  be  in  the  methods 
of  analysis  employed:  namely,  the  division  of  the 
Nation  into  regional  or  community  units,  and  the 
subsequent  subdivision  of  these  into  smaller  units 
both  for  purposes  of  obtaining  the  necessary  statis- 
tics concerning  the  community  demands  and  for 
assisting  various  other  active  agencies  which  must 
operate  in  conjunction  with  the  educational  system, 
each  in  its  way  in  proportion  to  its  success,  increas- 
ing the  sum  total  of  human  happiness.  Any  uni- 
formity other  than  this  must,  in  the  end,  prove  dis- 
astrous. Unity  in  variety  cannot  be  secured  to  any 
marked  degree  until  we  thoroughly  understand  the 
variances  in  our  unity  and  provide  the  necessary 
equipment  for  each  regional  unit  and  for  each  lesser 
unit  that  the  larger  unity  may  be  secured. 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE   UNIT   PLAN  —  A   UNIT   EQUIPMENT   FOR 
A   UNIT   OF   POPULATION 

As  has  been  previously  pointed  out,  it  would  appear 
that  the  perplexities  in  the  problem  of  analyzing 
the  demands  of  a  community  would  disappear  were 
attention  focused  upon  the  smaller  units  of  which 
the  larger  are  but  multiples.  Among  the  first  requi- 
sites, then,  would  be  the  determination  of  what  con- 
stitutes the  unit  of  population  which  can  be  most 
efficiently  handled  in  order  that  the  equipment 
necessary  for  the  handling  of  such  a  unit  might  also 
be  ascertained.  The  moment  this  discovery  is  made, 
the  process  of  caring  for  the  entire  community 
would  be  a  simple  one,  inasmuch  as  it  would  neces- 
sitate simply  the  duplication  of  equipment  for  the 
given  unit  of  population  to  be  handled  within  the 
given  area. 

The  principle  has  been  so  long  a  part  of  industrial 
progress  that  it  is  surprising  that  it  has  not  gained  a 
greater  influence  in  the  general  conduct  of  human 
affairs.  Yet,  when  we  realize  that  less  than  one  half 
of  the  whole  American  Nation  is  under  census  study 
for  such  important  occurrences  as  birth,  mortality. 


THE  UNIT  PLAN  65 

and  disease,  we  understand  how  slow  has  been  the 
progress  of  this  simple  economic  precept  even  in  the 
restricted  fields  of  public  health  and  welfare.  At 
the  same  time  it  is  equally  true  that  only  by  the 
correlation  of  its  smaller  units  can  a  nation  obtain 
for  itself  the  proper  foundation  upon  which  to  recon- 
struct its  future. 

Once  the  size  of  the  regional  unit  is  determined, 
knowledge  gained  by  an  analysis  of  the  ultimates 
would  determine  the  equipment  which  the  unit  of 
population  would  demand.  ' 

Two  requirements  are  immediately  placed  upon 
this  primordial  unit  of  population.  First,  it  must 
measure  up  to  a  certain  standard  designated  for 
all  communities  —  a  standard,  however,  varying  as 
the  progress  of  knowledge  in  the  State  of  which  the 
unit  is  a  part  prescribes;  and  second,  because  the 
given  unit  is  one  of  the  components  of  the  larger, 
it  must  fulfill  State,  national,  and  international 
requirements.  Furthermore,  the  unit  should  be 
allowed  complete  autonomy  to  raise  itself  to  meet 
these  requirements,  and  also  to  develop  within  itself 
all  those  features  making  for  the  fulfillment  of  the 
highest  desires  of  the  populace  residing  within  its 
limits.  This  autonomy  should  extend  to  its  under- 
taking of  a  union  of  its  interests  for  rarer  and  rarer 
demands  with  its  neighboring  small  units  and  for 
the  carrying  of  these  to  the  point  provided  by  State 


66    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

sanction.  This  might  be  furthered  by  a  provision 
by  the  State  of  uniform  methods  of  procedure,  but 
here  again  uniformity  should  be  tempered  always 
by  the  revelation  of  its  effects.  There  should  run 
through  the  whole  a  saneness  and  an  elasticity 
which  would  permit  new  communities  to  progress 
without  too  much  domination  and  restriction  by 
higher  formulae.  Perhaps  this  form  of  organization 
with  its  resultant  elasticity  contains  the  secret  of 
human  welfare  and  is  in  reality  but  the  application 
to  our  whole  welfare  problem  of  that  departmental- 
ization which  has  furthered  the  development  of  large 
business  organizations. 

One  argument  which  has  been  advanced  against 
the  success  of  such  a  proposal  is  that  an  inordinate 
amount  of  trust  in  the  members  of  the  human  family 
would  be  required.  There  can  be  but  one  answer  to 
such  an  objection,  and  that  is  that  if  our  educational 
system  is  not  to  provide  a  populace  worthy  of  trust, 
since  trust  is  essential  to  the  greater  happiness,  the 
system  is  in  itself  futile.  Some  restrictions  would 
of  necessity  have  to  be  raised  against  unwarranted 
developments  in  order  not  only  that  neighbors 
might  be  protected  from  individuals,  but  also  that 
individual  units  might  be  safeguarded  against  the 
encroachments  of  neighboring  units.  This  could, 
however,  we  believe,  be  easily  accomplished  by 
prescribing  certain  fixed  demands  —  standards  to 


THE  UNIT  PLAN  67 

wlilcli  the  individual  units  must  rise  in  spite  of  all 
the  autonomy  allowed  them. 

Having  arrived  by  an  analysis  of  ultimates  at  the 
knowledge  upon  which  to  build  a  unit  equipment 
for  a  unit  of  population,  it  would  become  necessary 
to  proceed  to  the  correlation  of  these  smaller  units 
again  into  units  of  larger  and  larger  type.  This 
process  would  inevitably  carry  beyond  municipal 
limits,  and  in  many  instances  beyond  State  limits, 
and  ultimately  even  beyond  national  limits  and 
boundaries, — for  just  as  one  unit  impinges  upon 
another,  so  one  country  impinges  upon  another;  and 
finally,  we  might,  with  the  simplicity  of  department- 
alization which  is  evident  in  the  proposal  for  a 
unit  of  population,  arrive  at  a  principle  which  would 
operate  even  through  a  period  of  internationalism 
which  may  be  imminent. 

It  is  conceivable  that  if  we  depart  from  geograph- 
ical lines  and  congregate  all  the  communities  on  the 
basis  of  regional  variances  and  community  bent,  a 
realignment  of  the  educational  system  and  the  pro- 
viding of  a  unit  equipment  for  a  unit  of  population 
would  not  be  difficult.  As  we  have  seen,  no  realign- 
ment could  be  justifiable  unless  a  careful  analysis  of 
ultimate  demands,  and  an  equally  careful  tabulation 
of  the  analysis,  preceded  it.  The  resulting  aggre- 
gations, however,  could,  we  believe,  be  adequately 
cared  for  by  putting  into  effect  a  reconstruction  of 


68    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

the  entire  educational  system  based  upon  what  we 
have  chosen  to  call  "departmentaHzation/* 

Concerning  departmentalization,  since  that  pro- 
posal is  dealt  with  more  fully  in  a  later  chapter,  we 
need  only  state  here  that  by  the  term  is  meant  not 
only  the  division  of  hiunan  knowledge  into  fields 
such  as  has  been  done  to  some  extent  already,  but 
also  the  abolition  of  those  arbitrary  hues  drawn 
across  the  educational  system,  without  reference  to 
the  capacity  of  the  student,  which  now  separate  the 
parts  of  the  equipment  which  handle  the  instruction 
in  the  various  fields.  Were  this  done,  the  depart- 
ments would  in  consequence  stand  continuously  and 
without  arbitrary  time  divisions  from  the  lowest 
point  of  the  system  to  the  highest.  We  believe  that  in 
no  other  way  can  the  requisite  elasticity  be  gained. 
The  elasticity  resulting  from  such  departmentaliza- 
tion would  allow  both  complete  freedom  for  the  in- 
dividual and  for  the  bent  of  the  larger  and  larger 
aggregations  which  would  be  correlated  for  the  pur- 
poses of  the  community  educational  system. 

A  necessary  part  of  the  equipment  for  any  given 
regional  unit  of  population  would  be,  of  course,  a 
university.  And  when  one  arrives  at  this  part  of  the 
educational  equipment  which  proposes  to  furnish 
the  so-called  "higher  education"  for  the  larger  units 
of  population,  one  is  faced  with  the  most  complicated 
of  all  the  problems  of  the  educational  plan. 


THE   UNIT  PLAN  69 

The  struggles  to  make  our  present  university 
equipment  fit  the  demands  of  the  time  might  be 
amusing  if  the  results  were  not  so  disastrous.  The 
secret  of  the  modern  university's  failure  is  undoubt- 
edly in  most  instances  this,  that  in  no  place  has 
there  been  a  realization  of  the  fact  that  each  edu- 
cational institution  is  created  for  the  purpose  of 
fulfilling  a  demand,  and  that  a  knowledge  of  the 
knowledge  demanded  can  only  be  found  by  a  care- 
ful analysis  of  the  ultimates  required  by  the  human 
family  residing  and  fulfilling  its  life's  function  in  the 
community.  Each  university,  especially  since  it  is 
the  servant  of  the  largest  single  unit  of  population  in 
the  country,  should  have,  first,  the  requisites  pro- 
vided for  it,  and  second,  a  knowledge  of  the  bent  of 
the  community  which  it  is  to  serve  in  order  that  its 
relation  to  other  universities  of  the  nation  in  which 
it  is  situated  may  be  properly  determined. 

One  objection  which  has  been  offered  to  this 
proposal  has  been  to  the  effect  that  the  existing 
institutions  would  be  fearful  concerning  their  own 
present  and  future  welfare,  and  would  scarcely  wel- 
come any  plan  which  would  in  any  way  curtail  their 
advancement.  The  reply  to  this  criticism  is  that  the 
present  educational  equipment  is  still  far  from  ade- 
quate and  the  plan  need,  therefore,  carry  no  fear 
to  any  educational  institution  where  adequate  rea- 
sons for  its  existence  are  found  at  present.    The 


70    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

results  upon  the  institutions  would  be  a  sharper 
delineation  of  their  regional  functions  in  order  that 
they  might  advance  more  rapidly  than  they  have 
been  advancing  in  the  past.  The  staple  community 
demands  would  remain  as  now,  or  would  multiply 
in  proportion  as  the  population  increased,  and  this 
tax  upon  the  institutions  providing  the  supply 
would  continue  as  now.  In  addition,  by  following 
a  peculiar  bent,  institutions  would  not  only  supply 
this  staple  community  demand,  but  would  supply 
for  the  rarer  and  rarer  demands  of  the  Nation. 
Their  student  bodies  might,  as  to-day,  be  composed 
of  students  drafted  from  all  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  from  all  nations  of  the  world.  The  princi- 
pal difference  would  be,  however,  that  the  institu- 
tions would  stand  definitely  as  individualized  instru- 
ments of  supply  for  definite  demands,  rather  than 
as  general  factories  of  supply  for  general  demands. 
The  gain  to  existing  institutions  would,  therefore, 
far  outweigh  any  small  peculiar  loss. 

As  has  been  pointed  out,  the  demands  of  a  com- 
munity, when  considered  in  terms  of  the  human 
members,  constitute  individual  ultimates.  With  all 
these  ultimates  the  educational  system  has  to  deal. 
Each  educational  institution  within  the  given  unit 
would  form  a  part  of  the  unit's  equipment.  Each  part 
of  the  unit  of  educational  equipment  for  the  unit  of 
population  would  fit  for  certain  ultimates.    As  the 


THE  UNIT  PLAN  71 

aggregation  to  be  served  increased  in  size,  the  ulti- 
mates  would  increase  in  number  and  variety.  This 
increase  in  the  demand  for  ultimates  might  be  nat- 
ural and  gradual,  or,  as  often  happens  at  the  present 
time,  rapid  and  unexpected.  The  founding  of  new 
industries  creates  a  sudden  demand  for  certain  ulti- 
mates, which  demand  may  not  have  formerly  existed 
to  any  large  extent  in  that  particular  community. 
Growth  and  demands  alone  could  determine  the 
amount  of  equipment  which  any  unit  would  require. 
Increasing  demands,  whether  gradual  or  rapid, 
could  alone  determine  the  necessity  for  additional 
equipment.  Therefore,  it  would  be  impossible  at 
present  even  to  tabulate  for  any  institution  within 
any  unit  all  the  equipment  required  for  the  training 
of  the  members  of  the  unit  adequately  to  encompass 
their  individual  ultimates.  Analysis  alone  could  fur- 
nish this  information  —  an  analysis  of  all  ultimates 
ranging  from  those  possessed  by  individuals  of  low- 
est mentality  to  those  elected  by  individuals  capable 
of  the  highest  mental  achievement. 

Neither  can  definite  answer  be  made  to  the  ques- 
tion. What  constitutes  the  highest  mental  achieve- 
ment.? Here  we  are  again  dealing  with  a  variable. 
A  plebiscite  of  France  has  given  the  badge  of  honor 
to  Louis  Pasteur,  whose  contributions  to  knowledge 
ranged  from  those  which  resulted  in  the  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  silk  and  wine  industries  to  those  which 


72    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

protected  animals  from  chicken  cholera  and  humans 
from  rabies.  Other  groups  would  honor  those  emi- 
nent in  government,  in  generalship,  or  in  philosophy. 
The  question  is,  of  course,  unanswerable.  A  retro- 
spective examination  of  past  achievements  reveals 
but  variances  in  judicial  opinion  concerning  the 
value  of  each.  But  this  does  not  in  the  least  mili- 
tate against  the  soundness  of  the  principles  proposed, 
for  hope  of  higher  achievements  must  be  the  promise 
of  the  future.  It  is  to  our  happiness  and  advan- 
tage that  the  highest  mental  achievement  cannot  be 
defined. 

The  unit  proposal  —  a  unit  equipment  for  a  unit 
of  population  —  is,  therefore,  none  the  less  practi- 
cable because  the  farthest  ultimates  cannot  be  de- 
fined. Since  all  functions  which  the  individuals  of 
the  human  family  perform,  both  in  isolated  and  in 
communal  existence,  must  be  dealt  with  by  the  edu- 
cational system,  the  plan  admits  of  the  widest  af>- 
plication. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE   WIDER   APPLICATION   OF   THE   UNIT    PLAN 

In  various  quarters  in  the  past  the  unit  plan  has 
received  some  attention.  In  the  field  of  common 
school  education,  especially,  the  application  of  the 
principles  has  been  attempted  and  the  experiment 
carried  farthest.  And  while  complete  success  has  not 
been  attained,  the  results  have  shown  the  principles 
to  be  both  sound  and  cogent. 

The  reasons  for  the  partial  failure  in  application 
here  are  easily  discernible.  In  the  first  place,  the  full 
potentialities  of  the  plan  have  never  been  perceived. 
Progress  has,  therefore,  been  more  a  groping  toward 
the  light  than  a  steady  march  under  a  clear  guid- 
ing idea.  In  the  second  place,  the  population  to  be 
served  has  always  been  too  large  for  the  equipment 
provided.  And  third,  the  existence  of  private  in- 
vaders in  the  field,  which  prevented  the  exercise  of 
arbitrary  control,  helped  to  balk  the  endeavor. 

These  private  invaders  were  not  necessarily  hostile 
to  the  unit  plan.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the 
idea  itself  was  never  clearly  presented ;  also  that  the 
situation  was  complicated  and  the  issue  clouded  by 
the  seeming  necessity  for  educating  to  some  extent 
on  the  basis  of  class  distinction  and  segregation.  The 


74    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

rise  of  the  private  schools  was  due  in  large  measure 
to  this  apparent  necessity  and  to  the  more  impor- 
tant fact  that  the  public  schools  were  not  equipped 
to  function  adequately.  Private  schools  appeared  be- 
cause the  need  for  them  existed.  They  flourished  and 
waxed  strong  as  long  as  the  need  persisted.  And  they 
began  to  decline  when  the  need  for  them  began  to 
diminish.  That  the  need  diminished  and  is  still  di- 
minishing has  been  due  primarily  to  evolution  rather 
than  to  any  fault  of  the  private  schools.  As  a  rule, 
these  institutions  have  upheld  the  traditions  of  the 
educational  propaganda  of  which  their  own  incep- 
tion was  a  part.  The  causes  for  the  decay  are  to  be 
found  rather  in  the  growth  of  the  whole  system  of 
compulsory  education;  in  the  discovery  that  only  by 
general  taxation  could  the  equipment  required  to 
handle  education  be  provided ;  and  in  our  willingness 
and  ability  to  submit  to  such  taxation.  Thus  have 
public  schools  been  improved,  and  thus  have  the  pri- 
vate schools  been  forced  to  take  a  lower  and  lower 
position.  They  can  no  longer  be  considered  as  seri- 
ous competitors  for  the  leadership  in  education. 

The  private  schools  appeared  before  the  unit  plan 
for  education  was  seriously  promulgated  or  the  prin- 
ciples involved  clearly  grasped.  They  have  failed  to 
maintain  their  position  because,  to  a  certain  extent, 
the  way  to  cooperation  with  the  regular  forces  in  the 
field  who  were  struggling  with  the  unit  idea  was  not 


WIDER  APPLICATION  OF  UNIT  PLAN    75 

made  clear.  Many  of  them  are  still  failing  to  dis- 
cover the  position  which  yet,  by  right  of  function, 
belongs  to  them,  and  are,  by  constant  curtailment, 
striving  to  postpone  the  day  when  bankruptcy  shall 
forever  close  their  doors.  Others,  more  progressive, 
have  attempted  to  attach  themselves  to  universities 
as  preparatory  institutions.  The  course  pursued  in 
either  case  is  largely  determined  by  their  inability 
or  ability  to  see  that  the  complete  application  of  the 
unit  plan  —  the  idea  which  is  growing  —  would  not 
necessarily  spell  doom  for  all  private  educational 
institutions.  Private  schools  may  and  probably  will 
continue  to  exist  without  injury  to  the  educational 
system  or  harm  to  the  unit  organization  as  long  as 
there  is  existent  a  universally  applicable  law  of  social 
distinction  creating  demands  to  be  supplied.  The 
way  to  new  life  leads  through  correlation  and  adjust- 
ment; the  way  to  death,  through  competition.  The 
private  practitioners  cannot  compete  with  com- 
munity provision  beyond  the  seventh  grade. 

As  we  have  said,  the  principles  of  the  unit  pro- 
posal have  been  those  applied  in  the  developing  of 
common  school  organization,  and  despite  the  inabil- 
ity of  organizers  to  see  the  full  potentialities  in  the 
plan,  the  principles  themselves  have  been  proved 
sound.  Attempts  made  to  widen  the  application, 
however,  to  other  parts  of  the  educational  system 
have  largely  failed.  And  because  of  the  failure,  such 


76    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

gross  wastes  as  exist  in  many  of  our  municipalities 
at  the  present  time  have  resulted. 

In  the  higher  fields  of  education  stronger  privately 
endowed  invaders  have  appeared,  many  of  them 
better  equipped  to  carry  on  the  work  in  certain 
fields  than  the  publicly  endowed  occupants.  Usu- 
ally when  the  application  of  the  unit  principle  has 
been  attempted  in  such  cases,  it  has  been  frustrated 
by  personal  ambitions  reinforced  by  traditional 
opinion  that  priority  of  occupancy  in  any  field  of 
educational  endeavor,  regardless  of  inferiority  of 
equipment,  constitutes  suflScient  reason  for  refusal 
to  retract. 

Particularly  is  this  true  in  Pittsburgh,  for  example, 
where  such  an  influence  has  been  most  potent.  Upon 
one  side  of  the  street  there  exists  a  large  endowed 
institution  which  vies  for  students  and  competes 
with  a  large  semi-state  university  across  the  way. 
Great  waste  here  caused  by  duplication  of  courses 
and  equipment  has  been  most  apparent.  Attempts 
to  apply  the  principles  of  the  unit  plan  by  adjust- 
ment and  correlation  have  been  made,  but  have 
thus  far  proved  futile.  Even  the  most  noteworthy 
of  these  —  the  investigation  carried  on  by  Professor 
C  R.  Mann,  a  comparative  study  of  the  University 
of  Pittsburgh  and  the  Carnegie  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology —  came  to  naught. 

In  the  report  which  Professor  Mann  made,  par- 


WIDER  APPLICATION  OF  UNIT  PLAN    77 

ticular  emphasis  was  placed  upon  wasteful  duplica- 
tion. And  since  the  situation  is,  in  reality,  general 
rather  than  local,  it  seems  advisable  to  quote  a  few 
paragraphs  from  the  "Mann  Report"  as  revised 
May,  1915:  — 

A  study  of  the  lists  of  subjects  of  instruction  at  the  two 
institutions  shows  that  the  most  serious  duplication  of 
work  at  present  occurs  in  the  more  advanced  courses  in 
the  engineering  schools.  Here  both  institutions  give  work 
in  highly  technical  subjects  to  relatively  few  students. 

It  is,  however,  evident  that  there  is  soon  going  to  be 
serious  duplication  in  the  teachers'  courses  in  manual  arts 
and  domestic  arts.  Both  institutions  are  now  engaged 
in  building  up  very  similar  courses  in  these  subjects. 
Both  are  also  developing  teachers'  courses  in  fine  arts  and 
music.  ^ 

And  again  on  a  later  page:  — 

That  there  is  considerable  wasteful  duplication  at  pres- 
ent is  shown  by  the  fact  that  at  the  University  last  fall, 
out  of  66  courses  being  given  in  the  engineering  school 
31  had  less  than  10  students  each.  At  the  Institute 
this  year  there  are  18  classes  out  of  186  with  less  than  10 
students  each,  and  32  more  with  less  than  15  students 
each.^ 

And  Professor  Mann  concludes :  — 

The  considerations  thus  far  presented  show  clearly  that 
at  present  there  is  wasteful  duplication  of  work  in  the  last 
three  years  of  the  engineering  courses.  These  fields  of 
instruction  now  offer  opportunities  for  useful  cooperative 
effort. 

1  Mann  Report.  1915,  p.  8.  *  Ibid.,  p.  17. 


78    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

Both  institutions  are  now  trying  to  develop  teachers* 
training  courses  in  fine  and  manual  arts,  domestic  arts, 
music,  dressmaking,  and  the  hke. 

At  present  the  University  has  a  department  of  educa- 
tion for  this  purpose,  but  very  inadequate  equipment  and 
facilities  for  practical  work.  The  Institute,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  splendid  equipment  for  practical  work  in  these 
subjects,  but  lacks  a  well-coordinated  department  of 
education.  Cooperation  in  these  fields  would  therefore 
seem  to  be  particularly  desirable  before  further  waste- 
ful duplication  begins.  Neither  school  has  any  practice 
school  of  its  own,  but  both  give  prospective  teachers  ex- 
perience in  the  public  schools  of  the  vicinity.  Under  these 
conditions  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  either  school  can  make 
any  very  serious  contribution  to  the  solution  of  the  press- 
ing problems  of  industrial  education.  .  .  .  ^ 

If  the  Institute  and  the  University  could,  by  friendly 
consultation,  bring  their  work  in  this  field  of  activity  into 
helpful  coordination,  not  only  would  it  result  in  the  imme- 
diate strengthening  of  both  and  of  the  city  school  system, 
but  also  Pittsburgh  would  soon  become  a  center  of  edu- 
cational investigation  and  enlightenment  second  to  none 
in  this  country. 2 

Painstaking  as  was  Professor  Mann's  study,  and 
clearly  set  forth  as  were  the  evils  in  the  few  para- 
graphs which  we  have  quoted,  little  or  no  adjustment 
or  reconstruction  resulted.  And  the  two  preceding 
volumes  of  the  report  of  the  survey  of  the  University 
of  Pittsburgh  furnish  ample  proof  that  the  waste 
and  duplication  still  go  on  at  this  later  time.  And 
this  condition  is  true  in  any  number  of  other  com- 

*  Mann  Report,  1915,  p.  18.  «  Ibid.,  pp.  20,  21. 


WIDER  APPLICATION  OF  UNIT  PLAN    79 

munities  in  America  and  testifies  to  the  need  for 
the  fullest  application  of  the  unit  plan. 

In  fact,  the  application  of  the  principle  of  a  unit  of 
equipment  for  a  unit  of  population  which  has  been 
herein  promulgated,  if  made  consistently  to  the  edu- 
cational system,  is  applicable  to  all  institutions 
which  have  to  do  with  the  provision  of  education  for 
the  individuals  of  any  community  in  the  Nation. 
Furthermore,  so  great  are  the  potentialities  in  the 
idea  that  the  same  principle  will  apply  in  the  solu- 
tion of  all  problems  which  concern  themselves  with 
human  welfare,  since  welfare  itself  is  dependent 
largely  upon  the  spreading  of  knowledge  and  the  in- 
creasing of  the  capacity  of  the  race  to  understand 
how  living  conditions  and  all  factors  which  make 
for  the  bettering  of  community  health  are  conjoined 
with  the  general  development  of  the  human  mind. 
Especially  is  this  principle  applicable  where  a  pater- 
nalism must  be  exercised  by  the  State  in  protecting 
individuals  against  their  own  ignorance  and  against 
the  mistakes  and  invasions  of  their  neighbors. 

A  specific  application  of  this  in  the  field  of  pub- 
lic health  will  perhaps  more  clearly  explain  what  is 
meant. 

There  are  a  number  of  maladies  more  or  less  gen- 
erally affecting  the  human  race.  These  vary  some- 
what with  regions,  size  of  community,  poverty,  and 
state  of  civilization  of  the  district.  It  may  be  that 


80    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

the  whole  group  of  infectious  diseases,  —  common 
colds,  bronchitis,  measles,  mumps,  scarlet  fever, 
whooping-cough,  —  the  social  diseases,  —  syphilis 
and  gonorrhea,  —  and  other  parasitic  diseases,  such 
as  tuberculosis  and  pneumonia,  are  common  mala- 
dies of  the  human  family  and  necessitate  attempts 
for  uniform  care,  inspection,  and  provision  by  a 
government  actuated  largely  by  the  spirit  of  pater- 
nalism. The  same  provision  is  necessary  also  in  deal- 
ing with  such  biological  problems  as  infant  feeding 
and  maternity,  care  of  the  teeth  and  the  eyes  and 
various  physical  defects.  Responsibility  for  the  care 
of  these  has,  in  the  past,  been  assumed,  as  a  rule, 
largely  by  voluntary  organizations  and  has  been 
accepted  by  the  Government  only  in  a  more  or  less 
perfunctory  way,  drastically  or  leniently,  according 
to  the  character  of  the  administration,  with  little 
thought  given  to  the  equipment  necessary. 

The  great  evil  in  our  system  at  present  is  imques- 
tionably  the  maladaptation  of  the  equipment  to  the 
demands.  The  equipment  has  no  elasticity  and  in  no 
satisfactory  way  meets  the  existing  conditions.  We 
believe  that  in  all  these  problems  the  application  of 
the  law  of  a  unit  equipment  for  a  unit  of  population 
would  dissipate  most  of  the  trials  of  modern  govern- 
ment. Especially  would  this  be  true,  if  a  degree  of 
local  autonomy  were  allowed  the  unit  in  the  utiliza- 
tion of  its  equipment.   For  instance,  with  the  dis- 


WIDER  APPLICATION  OF  UNIT  PLAN    81 

appearance  of  one  malady,  the  equipment  for  that 
might  readily  be  used  to  supply  any  new  demand 
which  might  make  its  appearance.  At  present  it  is 
not  uncommon  to  see  institutions  struggling  to  keep 
their  heads  above  water  long  after  the  specific  thing 
for  which  they  were  created  has  ceased  to  require 
their  services.  In  one  large  city  a  beautiful  smallpox 
hospital  lay  idle  without  occupants  because  the  de- 
mand for  the  place  for  smallpox  patients  had,  as  a 
result  of  preventive  measures,  ceased  to  exist.  At  the 
same  time  there  was  the  most  pressing  demand  for 
the  buildings  to  house  far  advanced  consumptives. 
However,  because  the  money  which  paid  for  the 
erection  of  the  hospital  had  been  demanded  for  a 
specific  purpose,  three  years  were  required  to  impress 
a  stupid  city  government  with  the  necessity  for  using 
the  smallpox  hospital  equipment  for  tuberculosis. 

It  is  quite  conceivable  that  the  equipment  for  all 
public  service  in  connection  with  these  infectious 
diseases  may,  in  the  future,  be  closely  associated  with 
and  may  be  a  part  of  the  common-school  equipment 
for  a  given  unit  of  population.  The  inauguration  of 
school  physicians  and  school  nurses,  school  provision 
for  food,  bathing,  and  inspection  of  teeth,  all  point  to 
a  future  amalgamation  of  these  two  important  equip- 
ments. And,  indeed,  where  the  application  of  the 
principle  has  become  most  significant  in  its  opera- 
tion it  seems  but  a  step  to  the  complete  a^ialgaraa- 


82    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

tion  of  the  service  for  family  supervision  and  school 
management.  The  smaller  detail  of  provision  of 
physical  equipment  for  the  handling  of  this  service 
is  a  matter  only  of  secondary  consideration,  since  it 
entails  only  the  expenditure  of  moneys.  Were  this 
amalgamation  brought  about,  the  necessity  for  more 
than  one  statistical  study  of  the  district  would  be 
obviated.  Where  child  life  and  family  sickness  are 
so  intimately  associated  with  such  supervision  as 
occurs  in  school  life,  the  necessity  for  such  an  amal- 
gamation, aside  from  being  the  likely  result,  at  times 
presents  itself  as  so  pressing  a  demand  that  one 
wonders  why  it  has  not  before  this  become  a  uni- 
versal expression  of  the  intelligence  of  the  Govern- 
ment. If  we  were  to  apply  the  unit  principle  to  all 
matters  of  public  health  and  welfare,  we  should  pro- 
vide, on  exactly  the  same  basis  as  we  supply  to-day 
our  common  school  for  the  universal  education  of 
the  children  of  the  unit  of  population,  an  elastic  or- 
ganization which  would  provide  efficiently  and  uni- 
formly for  the  care  of  a  given  group  of  people 

Perhaps  the  smallest  unit  of  population  in  the 
whole  unit  system  would  be  formed  for  the  purpose 
of  caring  for  such  maladies  as  have  been  mentioned 
above.  The  plan  would  necessitate  the  securing  of 
complete  and  efficient  knowledge  of  every  household 
and  room  and  their  human  contents  throughout  the 
region  over  which  supervision  was  exercised.   This 


WIDER  APPLICATION  OF  UNIT  PLAN    83 

unit  would  conceivably  correspond  in  size  more  or 
less  to  the  common-school  unit  of  the  present  time, 
and  as  in  those  units,  so  in  the  case  of  public  health 
units  also,  there  would  exist  a  necessity  for  correla- 
tion into  larger  and  larger  units  for  universal  de- 
mands. 

Pursuing  the  thought  a  bit  farther,  we  come  to  the 
more  or  less  rarer  demands  in  the  way  of  human  sick- 
ness. For  example,  canter,  chronic  cardiac,  arterial, 
and  nephritic  diseases,  various  operative  procedures 
in  the  field  of  abdominal  and  pelvic  surgery  would 
naturally  require  sparsely  distributed  equipment  to 
provide  for  them.  It  is  conceivable  that  the  equip- 
ment might  correspond  to  the  high-school  grouping. 
And  the  still  rarer  demands  which  may  be  exempli- 
fied by  nutritional  and  metabolic  disturbances  and 
rarer  operative  procedures  might  be  fittingly  pro- 
vided for  by  an  equipment  analogous  to  our  colleges 
and  universities. 

Furthermore,  wherever  we  touch  the  problem  of 
human  welfare,  we  find  that  it  is  becoming  naturally 
more  and  more  intimately  associated  with  the  edu- 
cational and  research  activities  of  the  community 
and  must,  if  we  read  the  tendencies  of  modern  times 
aright,  be  a  part  of  the  general  equipment  necessary 
for  the  protection  and  evolution  of  the  human  race. 
Therefore,  as  part  of  the  equipment  provided  for 
this  field  of  public  welfare,  there  would  be,  first  of  all. 


84    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

a  research  institution  maintained  by  the  general 
funds.  To  this  could  be  entrusted  the  task  of  discov- 
ering new  knowledge. 

While  this  principle  is  just  as  applicable  to  health 
as  it  is  to  education,  it  is  equally  applicable  to  char- 
ity, housing,  family  instruction,  food  inspection,  and 
many  other  endeavors  for  human  betterment  which 
are  struggling  for  expression  in  local.  State,  and  na- 
tional organizations.  In  short,  we  believe  that  the 
plan,  if  applied,  would  prove  to  be  the  strongest 
agent  yet  discovered  for  fitting  communities  to  take 
their  place  in  national  and  international  relation- 
ships. 

In  conclusion,  it  must  be  said  also  that  while  a 
number  of  local  applications  have  been  made  in  vari- 
ous communities,  the  principle  cannot  be  applied 
on  a  very  wide  scale  until  it  becomes  a  part  of  the 
governmental  control  of  communities.  Such  an  ex- 
periment, as  has  been  outlined  in  the  "First  Survey 
Report  of  the  Dispensary  Aid  Society  of  the  Tuber- 
culosis League  of  Pittsburgh,  —  an  Intensive  Study 
of  Eight  City  Squares,"  published  in  1916,  gives 
ample  proof  of  this.    Care  must  be  taken  also, 

AS  HAS  NOT  ALWAYS  BEEN  DONE  IN  THE  PAST,  TO 
MAKE  SURE  FIRST  OP  ALL  THAT  THE  UNIT  TO  BE 
HANDLED  BY  A  GIVEN  AMOUNT  OF  EQUIPMENT  IS 
NOT  TOO  LARGE.  WhERE  UNIT  EXPERIMENTS  IN 
PUBLIC  HEALTH  HAVE  FAILED  OR  ARE  FAILING,  THE 


WIDER  APPLICATION  OF  UNIT  FLAN    85 

CAUSE  FOR  FAILURE  IS  TO  BE  POUND  IN  THIS,  THAT 
THE  UNIT  CHOSEN  TO  BE  SERVED  BY  THE  GIVEN 
EQUIPMENT    IS    NOT    SMALL    ENOUGH.      The    wholc 

matter,  furthermore,  is  a  principle  inherent  in  the 
broader  principle  of  municipal  autonomy. 


CHAPTER  IX 

CORRELATION  —  THE    UNIVERSITY   UNIT,   ITS 
STRUCTURE   AND   GOVERNANCE 

In  attempting  to  suggest  the  practicability  of  a  wide 
application  of  the  unit  principle  to  fields  which  are 
not  primarily  the  concern  of  this  study,  we  have 
traveled  a  little  aside  from  our  main  course.  In 
pointing  out  that,  having  arrived  by  an  analysis  of 
ultimates  at  the  knowledge  upon  which  to  build  a 
unit  of  equipment  for  a  unit  of  population,  it  would 
become  necessary  to  proceed  to  the  correlation  of 
smaller  units  into  units  of  larger  and  larger  size,  we 
have  overleaped  an  important  step  in  that  course. 
Therefore,  it  now  becomes  necessary  for  us  to  return 
to  our  special  field  and  to  consider  this  omitted  step. 
Especially  is  this  necessary  because  the  means  in  large 
measure  determine  the  method,  and  before  we  can 
proceed  to  argue  methods  of  correlation,  we  must 
carefully  determine  the  agent  to  be  employed,  or, 
in  other  words,  before  discussing  methods  we  must 
ascertain  where  the  analysis  of  ultimates,  in  any 
large  community  which  undertakes  to  rebuild  its 
powerful  educational  system,  should  begin. 

As  has  been  pointed  out,  the  ultimates  of  com- 
munities differ  materially  as  do  the  communities 


CORRELATION  87 

themselves  differ  in  their  bents.  These  variances, 
and  the  fact  that  furthermore  the  larger  communi- 
ties differ  in  their  composite  mental  attitudes  toward 
various  subjects  which  are  proposed  to  them,  com- 
plicate the  task  of  choosing  the  proper  agent.  In 
a  later  chapter  the  suggestion  is  made  that  a  Muni- 
cipal Foundation  for  the  Study  and  Advancement  of 
Community  Education  would  be  the  fitting  gover- 
nor of  the  agent  chosen.  And  also  because  of  the 
educational  nature  of  the  task  which  the  agent  must 
perform,  it  would  seem  wise  to  suggest  also  that  the 
agent  itself  should,  in  most  cases,  be  the  university, 
and  that  the  foundation  should  find  residence  within 
the  institution.  This  arrangement  would  seem  most 
practicable  because  of  the  fact  that  within  the  univer- 
sity the  most  complex  ultimates  are  dealt  with,  and 
also  because  of  the  position  which  the  university 
theoretically,  if  unfortunately  not  in  fact,  occupies. 
It  is  fair  to  conclude  that  if  a  university  possessed 
a  clean-cut  conception  of  its  function  and  took  for 
its  object  the  increasing  of  the  sum  total  of  human 
happiness  of  all  members  in  its  contributory  com- 
munity, and  attempted  under  systematic  leadership 
only  those  things  which  pointed  directly  to  future 
betterment,  preceding  such  attempts  always  by 
cautious  education  following  a  most  painstaking 
analysis  of  ultimates,  the  community  itself  would  in 
time  become  the  most  perfect  building  unit  not  only 


88    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

of  the  future  nation,  but  of  a  possible  future  inter- 
national world. 

While  it  is  thus  conceivable  that  the  university 
might  be  the  agent  in  one  community,  it  is  also  pos- 
sible that  in  another  the  city  government  might  be 
best  fitted  to  act  in  such  a  capacity,  so  greatly  do 
groups  for  service  in  different  communities  vary 
because  of  the  conception,  outlook,  and  vision  of 
those  in  leadership  at  different  times.  In  other 
communities  such  an  organization  as  the  Chamber 
of  Commerce  or  one  or  another  of  the  various  social 
organizations  might  be  chosen  as  the  agent  of  the 
foundation.  Regardless  of  residence,  however,  were 
our  agent  to  undertake  the  task  of  analysis  partition- 
*ment  and  correlation,  the  beginning  must,  perforce, 
be  an  educational  one.  As  time  went  on,  the  insti- 
tution performing  such  a  service  might  find  it  ad- 
vantageous to  turn  over  the  function,  which  tem- 
porarily it  had  assumed,  to  the  Federal  Government 
or  to  the  government  of  the  community  or  commu- 
nities which  it  purposed  to  serve.  Wliatever  organi- 
zation were  selected  for  such  a  task  capacity  for 
leadership  would,  however,  inevitably  be  a  determin- 
ing factor.  The  assumption  of  educational  repon- 
sibility  by  any  one  group  at  any  given  time  in  the 
past  has  adequately  demonstrated  this.  Eventually 
this  function  suggested  might  reside  in  that  body 
which  has  the  autonomic  power  in  any  given  region. 


CORRELATION  89 

and  this  power  would,  of  course,  be  delegated  in 
its  fullest  application  to  those  smaller  and  smaller 
communities  forming  larger  and  larger  aggrega- 
tions. 

For  present  purposes,  no  matter  which  organiza- 
tion undertook  the  task  here  outlined,  the  prin- 
ciple would  be  found  to  work  through  the  larger 
and  larger  correlations  for  cooperative  purposes 
until  the  division  of  the  nation  into  a  number  of 
units  would  be  reached.  If  again  the  university  be 
chosen  as  the  agent,  these  divisions  might  fittingly 
be  termed  "University  Units."  It  is  conceivable 
that  perhaps  our  largest  educational  unit  would  be 
the  university  unit  so  named.  Applying  this  univer- 
sity unit  plan  to  the  nation,  we  would  then  have  the 
United  States  finally  composed  of  a  given  number  of 
university  units  adequate  in  number  and  equipment 
to  meet  the  demands  of  its  population.  The  bound- 
aries of  these  units  would  not  be  confined  by  any 
present  municipal  or  State  lines,  for  upon  each  uni- 
versity unit  there  would  be  a  special  demand  which 
would  determine  in  large  part  the  special  character 
of  the  institution.  Each  university  unit  would  have 
as  its  basis  in  the  final  analysis  a  group  of  building 
units  of  population  provided  with  an  equipment 
sufficient  to  meet  the  universal  demands.  The  bent 
of  the  community  also,  since  it  in  a  large  measure 
4etermines  the  demands  or  the  ultimates,  would 


90    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

also  determine  the  character  of  the  members  of  the 
educational  system  operating  within  the  unit. 

The  character  of  the  entire  educational  system 
would  receive  a  certain  bent.  Not  only  this,  but  def- 
inite bents  which  might  not  be  generally  applicable 
to  the  whole  system  might  be  given  to  individual 
departments.  For  example,  tropical  diseases  might 
furnish  opportunities  and  might  shape  the  bent  of 
medical  departments  in  southern  universities,  but 
would  have  no  determining  influence  upon  the  bents 
of  university  units  located  in  other  climates. 

Confining  our  discussion  to  the  problem  of  corre- 
lation in  a  single  university  unit,  we  begin  with  the 
consideration  of  a  unit  equipment  for  educational 
purposes.  Each  university  unit  would  have  as  its 
foundation  first  of  all  an  equipment  adequate  for 
the  provision  of  primary  education  necessary  to  sup- 
ply fully  the  unit  of  population  contained  therein. 
Each  unit,  which  at  the  present  time  may  be  cur- 
tailed by  existing  municipal,  county,  or  State  lines, 
would  eventually  disregard  any  such  arbitrary  divi- 
sions in  order  that  uniform  provision  for  the  entire 
population  might  be  accomplished.  Each  of  these 
smaller  units  would  have  as  its  duty,  in  common 
with  the  larger  units  with  which  it  was  correlated, 
the  attainment  of  prescribed  standards  below  which 
it  might  not  fall. 

In  Chapter  VII,  it  will  be  remembered  that  we 


CORRELATION  91 

have  already  pointed  out  that  one  requirement 
which  would  be  immediately  placed  upon  the  pri- 
mordial unit  of  population  would  be  that  it  must 
measure  up  to  a  certain  standard  designated  for  all 
communities.  But  it  must  also  be  borne  in  mind 
that  this  standard  would  vary  as  the  progress  of 
knowledge  in  the  State  of  which  the  unit  was  a  part 
prescribed.  This  prescription  by  the  State  has  come 
in  modern  times  to  be  a  prerequisite  for  an  edu- 
cational system,  be  that  system  correlated  or  dis- 
sociated, and  inasmuch  as  the  success  of  the  unit 
plan  would  in  large  measure  depend  upon  the 
amount  of  correlation  obtained,  the  establishment 
of  such  a  prescription  and  the  filling  of  the  same 
would  become  necessary  to  the  full  application  of 
the  principle  itself.  In  other  words,  it  would  be 
necessary  for  the  State  to  determine  a  minimum 
standard  below  which  no  educational  institution 
might  fall.  The  degree  of  efficiency  and  progress 
above  this  elemental  standard  of  State  prescription 
which  each  smaller  unit  might  attain  would  largely 
be  determined  by  its  unit  of  equipment  or  the 
amount  of  autonomy  granted.  Progress  would  be 
marked  from  time  to  time  by  the  gradual  raising 
of  standards  set. 

In  the  future  as  in  the  past  raising  of  standards 
would  be  based  upon  the  progress  exhibited  by  the 
best  communities.    We  have  already  seen  that  the 


92    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

progressive  community  which  resulted  from  the  es- 
tablishment in  the  town  of  Gary  of  an  individual- 
ized plan  of  education  has  already  caused  States  and 
communities  to  modify  their  standards  in  accord- 
ance with  the  knowledge  gained  by  this  experiment 
in  an  Indiana  town.  The  model  school  experiment 
actively  under  way  at  the  present  time  in  Teachers 
College  at  Columbia  University  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Rockefeller  Foundation,  if  it  should  prove 
successful,  would  facilitate  still  further  changes  in 
standards,  all  of  which  would  mark  a  point  below 
which  no  community  in  the  future  might  fall.  And 
so  we  progress.  As  each  community  attained  the 
prescribed  standard  it  would  be  necessary  to  begin 
the  application  of  autonomic  privileges,  the  reckon- 
ing with  the  influence  of  community  bent  and  the 
assumption  of  responsibility  in  the  given  area  to 
pursue  in  the  best  way  the  educational  methods 
best  adapted  to  the  population  resident  therein. 

Having  secured  local  autonomy  in  the  matter  of 
primary  education  it  would  become  necessary  next 
to  approach  the  more  difficult  problem  of  bringing 
together  individual  units  to  form  the  first  correla- 
tion for  secondary  educational  privileges  and  attain- 
ments. By  virtue  of  the  State  or  Federal  law  under 
which  autonomy  the  primary  building  units  would 
operate,  there  would  of  necessity  be  what  has  been 
referred  to  a  number  of  times  in  the  foregoing  pages. 


CORRELATION  93 

a  careful  analysis  of  the  population  to  be  served 
by  each  educational  unit  and  the  provision  of  some 
central  oflSce  in  the  foundation  to  which  the  results 
of  such  an  analysis  might  be  sent. 

A  tabulation  of  these  various  analyses  would  form 
the  first  basis  upon  which  our  given  units  might 
jointly  operate.  Those  units  would  first  of  all  be 
correlated  for  communal  secondary  education  whose 
demands  and  bents  showed  the  more  striking  re- 
semblances. The  building  equipment  would  be  de- 
termined largely  by  the  demands  of  those  seeking 
correlation.  In  the  same  way,  by  bringing  together 
a  number  of  secondary-school  units,  the  various 
secondary-school  regions  would  be  correlated  for 
higher  education,  and  so  on  until  provision  had  been 
made  for  the  demands  of  the  entire  population 
within  the  university  unit  —  i.e.,  for  all  who  leave 
the  educational  system  at  different  points,  not 
merely  for  that  percentage  of  the  population  which 
finally  makes  its  way  into  the  halls  of  the  university 
itself.  Those  leaving  the  system  at  any  low  point 
would  be  prepared  for  the  function  which  they  had 
chosen  to  fulfill.  Those  reaching  higher  parts  in  the 
system  would  be  drafted  into  them  by  a  careful 
study  and  tabulation  of  the  demands  in  the  entire 
community.  Furthering  this  correlation,  we  suggest 
in  later  chapters  a  delineation  of  courses  and  de- 
partmentalization . 


94    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

Were  a  nation  divided  into  university  units,  the 
government  would  early  become  a  problem  for  con- 
sideration, for  government  as  well  as  structure  is  a 
factor  in  correlation.  Our  national  experiment  in 
democracy  has  taught  us  the  necessity  for  providing 
an  impartial  supreme  judicial  body  forming  a  tri- 
bunal before  which  vexatious  partisan  difficulties 
may  be  tried  and  adjusted.  And  there  is  no  reason 
to  be  skeptical  concerning  the  beneficial  influence 
which  such  a  body  might  exert  were  one  formed  at 
the  apex  of  our  educational  structure.  In  fact,  we 
believe  that  the  whole  educational  system  for  a 
given  university  unit  should  have  above  its  admin- 
istrative machinery  such  a  body,  corresponding  in 
many  characteristics  to  the  supreme  bench  of  our 
judiciary,  before  which  arguments  concerning  ques- 
tions arising  between  administrative  pronouncement 
and  individual  community  rights  might  be  presented. 
Such  a  protective  body  has  always  been  the  safe- 
guard of  democracy,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  such  a  protective  body  might  equally  safeguard 
the  higher  educational  interests  of  communities. 

The  function  which  such  a  body  would  perform 
has  been  filled  at  times  in  the  past  by  trustees  of 
universities,  but,  alas,  more  often  than  not  boards  of 
trustees  have  functioned  not  as  courts  of  justice,  but 
as  committees  of  interference,  upholding  injustice 
and  autocratic  power.    A  supreme  court  such  as  is 


CORRELATION  95 

here  proposed,  it  must  be  clearly  understood,  would 
have  no  administrative  function  whatever  in  con- 
nection with  the  university  or  with  the  university 
unit.  It  would  merely  be,  to  repeat,  a  supreme  jury 
before  which  arguments  for  justice  might  be  pre- 
sented and  by  which  the  evil  of  autocracy  —  per- 
haps the  greatest  in  modern  university  life,  forbid- 
ding as  it  does  redress  both  for  students  and  for 
faculty  —  might  be  prevented. 

The  members  of  this  body  should  be  appointed  for 
a  definite  period  of  time.  A  seven-year  tenure  of 
oJEce  with  the  impossibility  of  self -succession  would 
more  nearly  approach  the  successful  expression  of 
man's  judgment  in  this  matter  than  either  life  ten- 
ure or  a  shorter  period  with  the  possibility  of  self- 
succession.  The  present  traditional  assumption  by 
college  and  university  presidents  that  their  tenure  of 
office  extends  for  life,  or  until  such  a  time  as  they 
may  be  able  to  retire  as  beneficiaries  of  the  Car- 
negie Foundation,  is  an  additional  influence  work- 
ing against  satisfactory  progress.  One  might  be  un- 
usually successful  in  the  fulfillment  of  his  office  as  a 
member  of  a  supreme  judicial  body,  but  if  this  were 
the  case,  other  opportunities  would  be  open  to  pro- 
vide for  the  expression  of  such  usefulness  after  the 
member's  period  of  service  had  expired  by  periodical 
termination  of  tenure.  Only  by  such  methods  could 
the  judicial  body  be  safeguarded  against  senility 


96    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

and  that  scarcely  less  degrading  evil,  degeneration, 
the  natural  and  inevitable  resultant  of  inbreeding. 

The  members  of  this  supreme  court  of  education 
might  be  appointed  by  the  active  administrative 
body  of  the  university  unit  immediately  below  it  in 
grade.  This  matter  of  appointment,  however,  will 
become  clearer  as  the  plan  for  the  municipal  founda- 
tion is  unfolded.  This  additional  fact  is  evident,  that 
the  judicial  organization  should  be  composed  of  not 
more  than  seven  members,  two  retiring  at  the  end 
of  two  years,  two  retiring  at  the  end  of  four  years, 
and  three  retiring  at  the  end  of  six  years,  and  so  on 
thereafter.  This  method  of  retirement  would  pre- 
clude the  possibility  of  packing  the  court  and  would 
retain  it  as  a  definite  supreme  body  which  would 
have,  in  common  with  all  supreme  judiciaries,  justice 
as  its  stay. 

The  determination  of  an  administrative  body  for 
the  university  unit  would  be  the  next  object  for  con- 
sideration. And  this  process  would  undeniably  be 
fraught  with  extreme  perils.  Here,  for  guidance,  let 
us  recur  again  to  our  analysis  and  ask  frankly.  What 
groups  have  the  right  to  representation  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  a  university  unit?  Here  again  also  we 
must  recall  that  of  all  places  for  the  exercise  of 
democracy,  since  education  is  a  prerequisite  for  suc- 
cessful democracy,  a  university  unit  of  population 
must  be  the  place  most  fitted  for  the  experiment. 


CORRELATION  97 

'  Theoretically  the  laws  of  democracy  ordain  that 
all  the  population  may  participate  in  sovereignty; 
that  all  those  affected  by,  living  under,  and  sharing 
in  the  benefits  of,  this  form  of  government  shall  be 
entitled,  through  representation,  to  participation  in 
the  councils  of  government.  Clearly,  then,  democ- 
racy applied  to  the  educational  system  would  order 
that  all  those  affected  by  the  system  are  entitled  to 
some  representation  in  the  democratic  educational 
councils.  And  the  bodies  so  affected  are,  of  course, 
first  of  all  the  students  under  instruction  in  a  given 
university  unit,  second,  the  faculty  offering  instruc- 
tion within  the  same  division,  and  third,  the  parents 
of  the  children. 

We  are  at  once  faced  with  the  truth  that  the  stu- 
dent body  of  a  university  unit  merits  consideration. 
A  student's  right  to  representation  is  unquestion- 
ably based  upon  two  facts :  first,  that  he  is  the  party 
most  concerned,  and  second,  that  he  is  a  member  of 
the  majority.  The  student  body  has  a  right  to  con- 
sideration, not  alone  because  it  constitutes  the  larg- 
est single  group  within  the  walls  of  the  university, 
but  because  of  the  fact  that  the  university  unit  itself 
was  constructed  for  its  instruction.  It  would  be  im- 
possible for  any  one  to-day  to  say  just  what  power 
of  representation  should  be  given  to  this  mass.  This 
fact,  however,  is  evident,  that  student  power,  stim- 
ulated by  experiences  gained  through  lower  insti- 


98    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

tutions  through  which  the  students  have  passed, 
has  been  growing  apace  and  the  right  of  students  to 
representation  is  becoming  more  and  more  apparent. 
It  may  be  even  true  that  the  day  is  near  at  hand 
when  the  admission  to  the  councils  or  government 
in  our  educational  system  must  be  granted  frankly 
and  freely  to  chosen  representatives  of  the  student 
body.  Nor  is  the  admission  of  such  representa- 
tives fraught  with  any  particular  danger.  Maturity 
determines  the  right  of  franchise  in  other  human 
affairs.  Maturity  may  not  be  a  just  basis  for  division 
in  educational  affairs,  but  maturity  has  equal  rights. 
Nor  is  it  at  all  certain  that  rights  of  representation 
do  not  exist  among  those  not  yet  arrived  at  matu- 
rity. At  best  this  problem  is  a  coniplicated  one 
which  only  time  and  study  can  satisfactorily  resolve. 

Evident  as  are  the  rights  of  the  members  of  the 
student  body  to  some  representation  in  administra- 
tive educational  circles,  even  more  clear  are  the 
rights  of  the  members  of  the  faculty  to  representa- 
tion. 

President  Schurman,  of  Cornell  University,  suc- 
cinctly indicated  this  right  and  advocated  the  idea 
of  professional  participation  in  government  and  con- 
trol of  the  universities  when  he  said:  — 

What  is  needed  in  American  universities  to-day  is  a 
new  application  of  the  principle  of  representative  govern- 
ment.   The  faculty  is  essentially  the  university;  yet  in 


CORRELATION  99 

the  governing  boards  of  American  universities  the  faculty 
is  without  representation.  The  only  ultimately  satis- 
factory solution  of  the  problem  of  the  government  of 
American  universities  is  the  concession  to  the  professori- 
ate of  representation  in  the  board  of  trustees  or  regents, 
and  these  representatives  of  the  intellectual,  which  is  the 
real  life  of  the  University,  must  not  be  mere  ornamental 
figures;  they  should  be  granted  an  active  share  in  the 
routine  administration  of  the  institution.^ 

As  long  ago  as  1912  this  recommendation  was 
made  that  Cornell  should  lead  the  way  in  the 
further  democratization  of  American  universities. 
And  last  year  witnessed  the  election  of  three  mem- 
bers of  the  faculty  of  the  Ithaca  institution  to  the 
board  of  trustees.  In  fact  so  much  progress  has  been 
made  recently  in  the  securing  of  faculty  rights,  and 
so  much  momentum  has  been  given  to  the  successful 
furthering  of  the  campaign  by  this  action  of  Cornell, 
that  we  need  only  mention  the  conflict  in  passing. 
Faculties  have  within  their  hands  at  the  present 
time,  in  many  of  the  better  informed  institutions, 
much  that  they  have  been  struggling  to  secure,  and 
the  need  for  more  adequate  faculty  representation 
on  higher  councils  is  increasingly  gaining  recogni- 
tion. 

The  rights  of  the  parents,  who  are  also  the  tax- 
payers   in  the  community,  to  representation    in 

*  The  President's  Report,  1915-1916.  Cornell  University  Publications, 
vol.  VII,  no.  17,  p.  6.    (Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  New  York.) 


100    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

higher  councils  have  not,  up  to  the  present  time,  been 
largely  agitated.  Their  rights  have,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, been  neglected  because  of  their  own  failure  to 
insist  upon  any  marked  representation.  In  the  mass 
they  are  naturally  not  conversant  with  either  the  de- 
tails of  the  system  or  the  problems  which  must  be 
solved.  Present  tendencies,  however,  indicate  that 
the  day  of  the  domination  of  the  professional  educa- 
tor over  the  practitioner  in  fields  of  education  is  pass- 
ing. If  the  signs  be  read  aright,  it  is  only  a  matter 
of  time  before  there  will  come  a  recognition  on  a 
wide  scale  that  the  practitioners  themselves  are  best 
fitted  to  say  what  should  be  served  up  as  education. 
Not  much  longer  may  the  theorists  arbitrarily  or- 
dain that  the  practitioner  must  take  this  or  that 
or  the  other  dose.  And  as  this  conception  of  the 
vital  rights  of  the  practitioner  grows,  there  will 
come  an  increasing  demand  that  the  general  public 
of  taxpayers,  composed  as  it  is  of  practitioners,  is 
entitled  to  important  voice  in  the  administration  of 
the  educational  system.  While  this  is  certain,  it  is 
also  true  in  regard  to  the  taxpaying  public  of  prac- 
titioners that  the  larger  that  public  the  more  unable 
it  is  as  a  body  to  administer,  and  it  must  trust  for 
actual  administrative  guidance  to  elected  repre- 
sentatives who  are  intimately  associated  with  the 
control  of  problems.  Probably  in  its  actual  adminis- 
tration the  most  just  representation  would  be  in  the 


CORRELATION  101 

nature  of  a  proportion  of  the  administrative  body 
which  would  return  to  the  taxpayers  themselves  the 
information  helpful  in  the  formation  of  their  better 
judgment.  When  the  time  arrives  that  the  voice  of 
the  practitioner  is  heard  and  heeded  to  the  extent  of 
shaping  formal  education  to  meet  the  demands,  the 
shaping  of  the  system  in  itself  will  afford  ample 
justice  to  this  long  unrepresented  body. 

In  dealing  with  the  university  itself,  which  forms 
but  a  part  of  the  proposed  future  educational  unit, 
another  group,  which,  in  the  past,  has  been  most  in- 
fluential, must  be  reckoned  with.  We  refer  here  to 
that  group  which  has  previously  received  its  educa- 
tional training  in  the  institutions  of  higher  learning. 
This  body,  now  known  as  the  alumni,  is  scarcely  en- 
titled to  the  unbounded  privileges  which  it  now  en- 
joys. These  privileges  were  born  of  the  necessity  for 
safeguarding  the  interests  of  American  colleges  and 
universities  against  the  uneducated  mass  at  a  time 
when  education  was  not  so  widespread  as  it  is  at 
present.  Privileges  of  sovereignty  were  also  the  re- 
wards for  pecuniary  assistance.  So  universally  has 
this  been  the  case  that  it  is  small  wonder  that 
alumni  have  come  to  look  upon  such  sovereignty 
remuneration  for  monetary  aid  as  an  almost  inalien- 
able right.  Nothing  could  be  farther  from  justice 
than  this.  To-day  the  individual  who  gives  is  alone 
favored  by  the  privileges  of  giving.   The  recipient. 


102    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS  \ 

by  acceptance,  honors  rather  than  is  honored.  Edu- 
cation also  has  become  more  diffused  and  the  masses 
no  longer  constitute  a  menace  to  the  welfare  of  edu- 
cational institutions.  Alumni  domination  based 
upon  protection  afforded  is  no  longer  either  neces- 
sary or  equitable  since  the  necessity  for  protection 
has  been  removed.  In  fact,  it  is  even  a  moot  ques- 
tion if  universities  have  not  lost  more  than  they 
have  gained  by  the  security  afforded.  Certainly  the 
benefits  have  been  doubtful  ones.  Under  our  present 
system  alumni  control  is  a  menace,  and  were  the 
unit  plan  adopted,  alumni  would  be  entitled  to  no 
more  representation  in  educational  councils  than 
would  any  other  members  of  the  community.  They 
are,  in  reality,  but  a  part  of  the  greater  public  which 
a  university  must  serve. 

The  position  of  the  university  in  the  proposed 
system  would  raise  still  another  question  necessi- 
tating the  further  application  of  the  principles  of 
democracy.  For  a  university  under  the  unit  plan 
would  as  now  require  a  head,  a  president,  or  a  chan- 
cellor, as  the  case  might  be.  In  the  past  the  selection 
of  this  officer  has  been  made  by  boards  of  trustees  in 
consultation  with  the  alumni  representatives  of  the 
institution.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  the  leader 
of  a  university  might  properly  and  safely  be  elected 
by  heads  of  departments;  not  by  heads  of  depart- 
ments as  departments  exist  at  the  present  time. 


CORRELATION  103 

but  rather  by  heads  of  departments  as  departments 
would  exist  if  the  whole  educational  system  were 
departmentalized  in  accordance  with  the  highest 
ideals  of  community  education.  A  proposed  plan  of 
departmentalization,  which  will  be  presented  in  a 
later  chapter  of  this  volume,  will  clarify  this  method 
of  election  by  heads  of  departments. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  MUNICIPAL  FOUNDATION  FOR  THE  STUDY 
AND  ADVANCEMENT  OF  COMMUNITY  EDUCATION 

Unquestionably  the  proper  agent  to  further  the 
cause  of  education  by  systematic  analysis  and  re- 
organization of  the  educational  system  would  be  the 
Federal  Government.  History  has,  however,  taught 
that  only  as  a  project  proves  feasible  is  it  accepted 
and  made  the  recipient  of  Government  patronage. 
The  Government,  even  if  it  would  accept  the  task, 
has  been,  because  of  the  rights  of  States,  largely  de- 
prived of  its  right  of  initiative  in  such  matters.  In- 
dividual States,  existing  before  the  Union,  have,  in 
the  matter  of  education,  retained  jurisdiction  within 
their  own  borders.  The  inaugurations  of  projects, 
more  or  less  experimental  in  nature,  especially  in  the 
field  of  public  education,  have  therefore  not  been  a 
part  of  Government  practice.  In  lieu,  then,  of  the 
proper  agent,  in  order  to  carry  out  such  a  plan  as  is 
suggested  in  this  volume,  it  would  become  necessary 
to  turn  to  other  quarters  and  to  depend  upon  volun- 
tary rather  than  upon  governmental  aid. 

Because  of  possibly  justifiable  conservatism  on 
the  part  of  the  Government,  the  most  feasible  way 


THE  MUNICIPAL  FOUNDATION        105 

of  making  a  beginning  at  systematic  reconstruction 
would  be  through  a  competent,  voluntary  group  of 
men  who  would  have,  in  addition  to  their  apprecia- 
tion of  the  significance  of  the  task  undertaken,  the 
funds  with  which  to  carry  the  project  to  fruition. 
Such  a  group  assuming  such  a  trusteeship  we  have 
chosen  to  name  a  Municipal  Foundation  for  the 
Study  and  Advancement  of  Community  Education. 

Thus  far  the  suggestion  is  scarcely  a  novel  one. 
Precedent  is  not  lacking  both  for  individuals  and 
for  groups.  The  Rockefeller  Foundation,  the  Sage 
Foundation,  and  the  Carnegie  Foundation  all  stand 
as  examples  of  monumental,  individual,  voluntary 
acceptance  of  composite  social  responsibilities,  and 
the  Cleveland  Foundation  for  the  Administration  of 
Charity  is  an  excellent  example  of  group  acceptance 
of  the  responsibility  to  further  the  interestsand 
welfare  of  community  life. 

Meritorious  as  has  been  the  work  of  these  large 
foundations  in  the  field  of  general  education,  a  care- 
ful scrutiny  of  the  publications  describing  their  ac- 
tivities has  led  to  the  conclusion  that  in  all  of  them 
vital  weaknesses  exist.  They  have  endeavored  and 
are  still  endeavoring  to  operate  on  a  national  scale, 
and  although  few  years  have  passed  since  their  in- 
ception, so  varied  are  the  peculiarities  which  have 
to  be  reckoned  with,  and  the  demands  which  have  to 
b§  provided  for,  in  the  vast  number  of  communities 


106    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

composing  this  Nation,  that  they  have  already 
become  overburdened  to  such  an  extent  that  not 
even  their  enormous  wealth  of  resources  enables 
them  more  than  to  scratch  the  surface.  However, 
this  additional  fact  is,  we  believe,  true,  that  the 
principle  involved  in  the  establishment  of  a  foun- 
dation, were  it  applied  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
the  task  to  be  fulfilled  bear  a  direct  relation  to  the 
funds  and  equipment  available  for  that  task,  would 
probably  furnish  the  key  to  the  secret  of  successful 
accomplishment  in  chosen  fields  of  endeavor. 

Perhaps  the  vital  contribution  of  foundations  up 
to  the  present  time  has  been  the  introduction  into 
the  educational  field  of  the  idea  of  experimentation 
and  the  suggestion  that  progress  in  this  most  im- 
portant realm  of  human  endeavor  is  not  impossible. 
The  most  recent  of  foundation  experiments,  the  new 
model  school  founded  by  the  Rockefeller  Founda- 
tion in  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  has 
already  been  mentioned  in  these  pages.  This  experi- 
ment, in  common  with  many  others,  however,  if  one 
may  judge  by  the  published  material  available  at  the 
present  time,  contains  great  elements  of  weakness. 
The  two  most  significant  of  such  would  seem  to  be, 
first,  the  lack  of  a  control  experiment,  and,  second, 
the  lack  of  carefully  analyzed  needs  demanding  ful- 
fillment. A  prerequisite  for  all  experimentation  in 
laboratory  work  to-day  is  a  control  experiment.  This 


THE  MUNICIPAL  FOUNDATION         107 

is  as  essential  as  the  experiment  itself.  This  model 
school  experiment  in  the  midst  of  a  large  community 
such  as  New  York,  drafting  its  pupils  from  wide 
areas,  assembling  them  from  all  members  of  all  com- 
munities of  widely  varying  bents,  yet  made  without 
reference  to  community  life,  may  be  largely  invali- 
dated by  its  susceptibility  to  criticisms  which  might 
have  been  avoided  if  the  simple  principle  of  unit 
autonomy,  a  unit  of  equipment  for  a  unit  of  popu- 
lation, were  applied  in  the  beginning. 

The  foundation  which  we  would  suggest,  there- 
fore, would  be  not  a  national  one,  but  a  municipal 
one;  that  is,  a  group  of  men  who  would  voluntarily 
undertake  the  task  of  analyzing  the  demands  or  the 
ultimates  of  a  given  community,  gathering  knowl- 
edge as  a  preliminary  to  the  establishment  of  a  firm 
foundation  upon  which  to  reconstruct  the  educa- 
tional system.  That  is,  we  believe  that  the  applica- 
tion of  the  foundation  idea  to  a  community  is  in  it- 
self a  suggestion  worthy  of  immediate  consideration. 
In  other  words,  we  believe  that  the  formation  within 
a  community  of  a  voluntary  group  who  would  under- 
take the  financing  of  the  gross  analysis  of  the  ulti- 
mates of  the  community  in  which  the  foundation 
existed,  and  who  would  month  after  month  and  year 
after  year  furnish  the  community  with  knowledge 
upon  which  its  educational  system  could  be  fittingly 
remodeled,  and  who  would  consider  all  existing  in- 


108    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

stitutions  and  the  functions  which  they  could  best 
perform  for  the  community,  and  the  final  gross  cor- 
relation of  all  offices  which  in  the  large  exist  only  for 
the  community  which  they  serve  and  of  which  they 
are  a  part,  would  mark  the  beginning  of  a  new  and 
happier  community  existence. 

Inasmuch  as  the  most  difficult  problems  which 
would  be  presented  to  such  an  investigating  body  are 
those  which  involve  the  products  of  the  higher  edu- 
cational institutions  in  the  community,  the  most 
fitting  place  for  the  municipal  foundation  to  begin 
its  work  would  be  within  a  university.  If  the  uni- 
versity in  any  community  were  not  fitted  to  receive 
the  foundation  as  an  intramural  correlating  agency, 
the  first  task  of  the  foundation  would  be  to  exert  all 
its  efforts  to  raise  the  university  to  a  high  plane. 
This,  because  it  has  been  apparent  throughout  the 
progress  made  in  education  that  a  most  impor- 
tant single  factor  has  been  the  improvement  and 
demands  of  higher  instructional  institutions  operat- 
ing upon  lower  educational  groups  that  have  been 
forced  by  necessity  to  meet  the  requirements  im- 
posed from  above.  Because  of  this  it  is  safe  to  be- 
lieve that  if  the  foundation  could  begin  by  enhanc- 
ing the  post-graduate  opportunities  in  a  community, 
the  whole  educational  system  would  rise  to  meet 
new  and  higher  standards.  And  within  the  post- 
graduate school  the  foundation  could  fittingly  find 


THE  MUNICIPAL  FOUNDATION         109 

residence  and  there  receive  in  its  labors  the  aid  of 
all  students  who  had  pushed  on  to  this  advanced 
part  of  the  system. 

We  believe  that  it  may  be  said  without  question 
that,  starting  in  those  fields  of  higher  learning  that 
have  been  attained  by  individual  endeavor,  the  in- 
vestigators would  find  the  proper  place  by  analysis 
to  push  aside  obstacles  which  exist  in  the  lower  ed- 
ucational strata  and  tend  there  to  produce  that 
stagnation  born  of  satisfaction  so  inherent  in  the 
mass  of  the  human  family.  While  we  believe  also 
that  our  analysis  of  conditions  has  led  us  to  what  is 
the  rule,  we  do  not  believe  that  it  is  the  invariable 
rule,  for  many  instances  of  progressive  organization 
and  advancement  have  occurred  in  communities 
where  men  have  become  interested  chiefly  in  pri- 
mary and  secondary  education.  Investigation  would 
tend  to  show,  however,  that  these  are  largely  excep- 
tions, and  that  as  a  more  or  less  constant  rule  pri- 
mary and  secondary  schools  rise  to  meet  require- 
ments of  higher  educational  institutions  imposed 
from  above  rather  than  for  the  impetus  of  any  force 
generated  from  within. 

Wherever  the  foundation  found  its  home,  its  duty 
would  be  to  bring  the  institution  in  which  it  has  re- 
sided into  such  a  position  as  would  favor  its  render- 
ing trustworthy  service  to  the  community.  And  then 
day  by  day  thereafter  to  seek,  on  the  sure  foundation 


110    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

of  analysis  of  ultimates,  to  improve  weak  parts  of 
the  educational  system  and  correlate  groups  having 
aflSnity  for  each  other,  to  make  elastic  the  whole 
educational  system,  and  finally  to  evolve  for  the 
community  served  by  the  institution  —  which  com- 
munity would  in  the  long  run  be  a  national  unit  — 
a  system  of  education  elastic  enough  to  keep  pace 
with  the  progress  of  knowledge  and  sane  enough  to 
retract  when  the  demands  for  any  given  ultimate 
disappeared. 

The  performance  of  the  task  of  the  foundation 
would  not  be  one  in  which  any  great  rapidity  could 
be  gained.  Patience  and  continual  education  of  the 
community  would  be  required.  Moreover,  progress 
toward  success  would  require  that  the  publica- 
tions of  the  foundation  be  so  thorough  as  to  in- 
spire trust  in  the  undertaking  by  gaining  immediate 
recognition  of  their  meritoriousness  and  that  those 
in  charge  ever  keep  before  themselves  the  ideal 
of  elasticity.  Furthermore,  a  foundation  would  be 
required  to  remember  that  as  it  enlarged  its  field  of 
endeavor,  it  would  come  in  contact  with,  and  im- 
pinge upon,  its  neighboring  units,  and  that  in  addi- 
tion to  its  community  service  it  had  a  function,  con- 
jointly with  all  other  foundations,  existing  for  higher 
fields  of  achievement  than  those  of  local  university 
interests,  and  that  all  would  be  busy  with  the  one 
task  of  forming  a  nation  which  might  in  the  future 


THE  MUNICIPAL  FOUNDATION         111 

take  a  dominant  part  in  a  possible  international 
society. 

Naturally,  just  as  every  aggregation  of  men  pro- 
posing to  supply  a  demand  faces,  as  a  primal  neces- 
sity, the  choice  of  a  manager  for  the  task  which  it  has 
at  hand,  one  of  the  first  needs  of  a  foundation  having 
such  an  aim  would  be  a  leader.  After  the  leader  has 
been  secured,  however,  if  all  were  stimulated  by  the 
same  vision  and  if  sympathy  furnished  the  impetus 
to  every  endeavor,  all  would  work  together  to  pro- 
vide the  best  for  each  community  in  which  the  opera- 
tion was  to  take  place.  Were  this  to  happen,  we  be- 
lieve that,  despite  the  tremendous  difficulties  which 
would  of  necessity  be  at  first  encountered,  com- 
mon sympathy  and  able  leadership  would  insure 
progress. 

In  regard  to  progress  it  may  be  said  that  revolu- 
tion is  probably  not  a  requisite,  although  progress 
may  at  times  have  resulted  from  it.  Always,  how- 
ever, revolution  has  carried  in  its  wake  the  sad 
results  of  the  travail  of  many  who  have  become  in- 
volved in  its  toils.  The  eradication  of  certain  false 
prophets,  who  have  gained  power  because  of  the 
common  ignorance  of  the  demands  of  the  commu- 
nity, could,  we  believe,  be  accomplished  by  other 
than  revolutionary  methods.  The  withdrawal  of 
such  agents  from  the  field  would  be  an  early  neces- 
sity, for  all  those  working  for  selfish  ends,  and  often- 


112    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

times  for  theoretical  ends  not  based  upon  an  analy- 
sis of  demands,  ever  place  experiments  under  a  dis- 
advantage. 

In  the  case  of  this  proposal,  as  in  the  case  of  all 
new  plans,  many  may  be  skeptical  and  fearful  be- 
cause the  ramifications  can  be  but  vaguely  outHned. 
Obscurities  are  ever  deterrents.  Yet  in  the  present 
case,  since  the  lines  of  progress  are  clearly  and  defi- 
nitely apparent  to  all  who  will  take  the  time  to  start 
upon  the  journey  and  pursue  it  to  the  end,  we  be- 
lieve there  is  small  cause  for  fearfulness.  A  daily 
disclosure  of  the  details  at  present  obscure,  a  daily 
reduction  to  order  and  system  as  they  appear  in 
increasingly  stronger  light,  would  soon  clear  away 
the  clouds  which,  at  first,  seem  impenetrable.  Cer- 
tainly the  end  to  be  attained  would  make  the  strug- 
gle, no  matter  how  difficult,  increasingly  of  worth. 
No  greater  contribution  could  be  given  to  human- 
ity than  the  exemplification  of  the  truth  that  the 
greatness  of  a  nation,  the  goodness  and  equitability 
of  its  government,  and  the  provision  for  the  people 
who  form  the  building  unit  are  wholly  bound  up 
with  the  educational  system  of  the  communities 
which  form  the  nation.  And  the  first  step  in  this 
direction  would  be  the  acceptance  of  the  task  by 
such  a  small  group  as  has  been  suggested;  a  body 
making  their  function  and  duty  the  gathering  of 
knowledge  of  community  ultimates,  and  by  the  in- 


THE  MUNICIPAL  FOUNDATION         113 

sight  thus  gained,  to  point  the  way  to  future  recon- 
struction. 

At  its  inception  such  a  body  as  the  proposed 
municipal  foundation  organization  would  need  no 
administrative  power.  Later,  however,  the  wisdom 
with  which  each  foundation  carried  out  its  purpose 
would  ultimately  determine  the  amount  of  author- 
ity which  could  be  safely  granted  to  it.  It  is  con- 
ceivable that  in  time  a  foundation  might  exercise 
the  power  at  present  vested  in  numerous  boards  of 
trustees.  Unquestionably  that  body  of  men  with 
whom  resided  the  most  careful  analysis  of  demands 
and  facilities  for  any  given  unit  of  population  would 
form  the  safest  repository  for  the  entrusting  of  ap- 
pointments to  all  institutions  operating  within  the 
district.  To  this  board,  if  authority  were  in  the 
future  granted  it,  there  would  be  elected  represen- 
tatives of  all  the  interests  resulting  from  the  de- 
partmentalization of  the  system  of  education  of  the 
whole  university  unit.  Service  rather  than  power, 
however,  should  be  the  ideal  for  the  group.  The 
immediate  necessity  would  be  the  gathering  of 
knowledge  for  the  given  unit  by  analysis  and  tabu- 
lation of  results  obtained,  and  the  doing  well  of  the 
work  which  to-day  is  attempted  in  a  small  and  per- 
functory way  by  many  scattered  governmental  and 
voluntary  agents,  of  making  intensive  studies  of 
units  of  population  which  are  to  be  directly  served. 


114    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

The  history  of  the  past  is  indicative  of  the  fact 
that  the  careful  study  of  the  small  group  is  often 
accepted  and  made  a  powerful  influence  in  determin- 
ing the  policy  for  a  larger  aggregation  of  which  the 
group  under  study  was  but  a  part.  A  survey  of  the 
attempts  of  the  Federal  Bureau  of  Education  and  of 
the  endeavors  of  the  various  large  foundations  re- 
veals the  fact  that  in  each  instance  each  of  these 
organizations  is  striving  to  determine  definitely 
general  principles  on  the  basis  of  small  studies. 
The  report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  is  in 
essence  an  analysis  of  local  studies.  The  reports  of 
the  special  foundations  likewise  exhibit  a  similar 
attempt  to  project  principles  on  similar  bases.  It 
may  be  that  the  hour  has  not  yet  arrived  for  the 
acceptance  and  acknowledgment  that  intensive 
study  of  units  of  population,  carefully  analyzed  and 
tabulated,  must  be  at  the  foundation  of  any  future 
proposal  of  universal  education.  However  this  may 
be,  we  believe  that  that  time  will  sooner  or  later 
arrive.  And  when  the  hour  is  ripe,  we  believe  that 
the  feasible  method  to  employ  would  be  to  select 
university  units  scattered  over  the  United  States 
which  could,  in  the  first  rough  partitionment  and 
until  a  suflBcient  amount  of  knowledge  were  forth- 
coming to  guide  in  the  application  of  the  principle, 
rest  upon  the  basis  of  State  lines  as  they  at  present 
exist.   We  have  already  intimated  that  it  is^quite 


THE  MUNICIPAL  FOUNDATION         115 

within  reason  to  suppose  that  Government  patron- 
age would  ultimately  follow  the  successful  operation 
by  municipal  agents  of  the  unit  plan.  It  is  unlikely, 
however,  that  Government  acceptance  of  the  opera- 
tion in  those  communities  where  education  has  pro- 
ceeded farthest  would  be  immediately  forthcoming. 
Yet  the  probability  of  tardiness  on  the  part  of  the 
Government  need  not  be  a  bar.  The  mere  accept- 
ance of  the  task  would  furnish  an  opportunity  for 
investment  of  wealth  in  securities  bringing  returns 
more  rapidly  and  in  larger  percentage  than  any 
others  at  present  in  the  world-markets.  And  with 
the  increasing  success  of  the  undertaking,  assuredly 
governmental  recognition  would  come. 

As  has  been  suggested,  existing  institutions  might 
fittingly  be  left  until  a  sufficient  amount  of  knowl- 
edge could  be  gathered.  Existing  boards  of  trustees, 
faculty  organizations,  and  subordinate  institutions 
might  all  carry  on  their  work  as  at  present  until  such 
a  time  as  the  findings  of  the  foundation  should  dis- 
close a  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  changes  to  be 
made.  Having  allowed  existing  institutions  tem- 
porarily to  continue  in  their  way,  it  would  be  the 
function  for  the  foundation  of  the  university  unit  to 
keep  the  knowledge  which  it  was  accumulating  con- 
stantly before  the  inhabitants  of  the  unit.  If  this 
were  carefully  and  wisely  done,  the  future  of  the 
given  unit  would  be  assured  and  the  foundation 


116    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

might  ultimately  be  entrusted  with  the  final  selec- 
tion for  the  given  period  of  years  of  all  administra- 
tive heads  in  the  various  educational  organizations 
which  in  any  way  furnished  a  supply  for  any  of  the 
demands  of  the  given  area. 

The  charter  under  which  such  a  foundation  would 
operate  would  prescribe  the  future  composition  of 
this  body.  In  the  inception,  it  would  only  be  neces- 
sary for  a  group  to  accept  voluntarily  the  responsi- 
bility and  seek  incorporation  for  the  purposes  sug- 
gested, outlining  those  in  its  charter.  In  no  other  way 
could  the  act  be  accomplished,  and  the  fulfillment 
of  its  mission  would  be  the  assurance  of  the  founda- 
tion's perpetuity.  And  again,  if  its  trust  were  care- 
fully carried  out,  its  power  would  be  commensurate 
with  its  wisdom.  For  as  the  populace  of  any  given 
university  unit  became  more  and  more  educated, 
the  members  would  scrutinize  with  increasing  care 
the  endeavors  of  the  foundation  to  fulfill  its  func- 
tion and,  with  confidence  in  its  wisdom,  would  add 
to  its  authority. 

The  most  feasible  way  to  an  immediate  beginning 
of  such  a  project  would  be  for  one  individual  to  ex- 
hibit an  ultimate  of  leadership  suflScient  to  call  about 
him  such  a  group,  and  to  propose  to  them  that  they 
accept  temporarily  as  their  duty  the  gathering  of  the 
knowledge  for  the  community  in  which  they  reside, 
and  that  furthermore  they  accept  the  responsibility 


THE  MUNICIPAL  FOUNDATION         117 

for  the  expense  incurred  by  such  a  venture,  and  next 
that  they  proceed  to  appoint  a  man  and  instruct  him 
to  begin  the  analysis  and  tabulation.  If  the  original 
voluntary  group  were  of  authority  and  standing  in 
the  community  all  existing  data  possessed  by  various 
municipal  organizations  would  be  open  to  the  agent 
of  the  foundation  at  once.  This  group,  as  we  have 
said,  might  either  become  incorporated  immediately 
or  exist  for  a  time  simply  as  a  voluntary  organiza- 
tion requiring  frequent  reports  of  the  progress  of  the 
work,  and  as  soon  as  these  reports  assured  the  success 
of  the  endeavor,  incorporation  for  a  specific  purpose 
could  be  accomplished.  A  weekly  and  monthly  evo- 
lution of  the  duties  and  functions  of  such  an  organi- 
zation would  soon  establish  the  wisest  course  along 
which  to  proceed. 

It  would  not  be  necessary  in  the  beginning  to  in- 
clude among  the  members  of  such  a  body  any  of  the 
existing  administrative  officers  in  the  various  insti- 
tutions feeding  the  community.  In  fact,  it  would 
seem  inadvisable  to  make  such  an  inclusion,  for  it 
has  often  been  demonstrated  that  actual  admin- 
istrators are  incapable,  as  a  rule,  of  seeing  beyond 
the  influence  which  any  given  movement  might 
have  upon  the  institution  of  which  they  are  a  part, 
and  few,  indeed,  are  those  who  rise  to  the  height  of 
considering  the  population  as  a  whole,  confined  as 
they  are  by  the  necessity  of  earning  a  livelihood,  by 


118    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

existing  entanglements  and  promises,  and  by  the  in- 
vasion of  authority  even  in  the  actual  promulgation 
of  their  own  thoughts.  All  these  factors  and  many 
more  prevent  administrators  from  encompassing 
generally  any  vision  for  the  group.  Too  often  great 
projects  are  brought  to  an  untimely  end  because  of 
the  narrow  and  restricted  personal  views  of  members 
who  form  the  individual  board.  Too  often  also  the 
active  agents  of  projects  hold  within  themselves  the 
fatality  of  the  proposal  which  they  are  asked  to 
accept. 

Furthermore,  if  the  death  of  an  institution  is  to 
be  prevented,  definite  provision  also  must  be  made 
in  the  beginning  concerning  tenure  of  office.  Meri- 
torious ends  are  often  defeated  by  a  long  contract 
and  this  should  be  guarded  against. 

As  an  additional  safeguard,  also,  the  members 
of  the  foundation  should  insist  that  frequent  state- 
ments be  furnished  them  by  their  agent;  statements 
similar  to  the  tonnage  sheets  in  our  large  businesses 
illustrating  the  progress  of  the  work.  By  this  means 
the  foundation  could  not  only  gauge  the  growth  of 
the  project  which  it  was  furthering,  but  also  would 
evaluate  the  fitness  of  their  chosen  agent  to  perform 
his  task.  -      ^  ^  «» 

An  early  duty  of  the  foundation  would  be  to  estab- 
lish a  bureau  for  the  analysis  of  the  demands  of  the 
university  unit.  Then  as  the  work  progressed  there 


THE  MUNICIPAL  FOUNDATION         119 

would  evolve,  associated  with  this  bureau  of  analy- 
sis, a  bureau  of  statistics  in  which  the  results  of  the 
analysis  would  be  tabulated  and  kept  up  to  date. 
And  this  would  be  followed  ultimately  by  a  bureau 
of  supply  which  would  undertake  the  distribution  of 
equipment  throughout  the  university  unit.  Through 
these  three  bureaus  the  municipal  foundation  for 
the  study  and  advancement  of  community  educa- 
tion might  attempt  without  dominance  to  under- 
take modifications  in  the  existing  educational  sys- 
tem, to  provide  equipment  in  some  institutions,  to 
further  reconstruction  and  stop  waste  in  others,  and 
to  propose  from  time  to  time  new  ways  of  supply- 
ing demands  existing  in  the  community.  The  foun- 
dation might  ultimately  have  as  one  of  its  most 
powerful  influences  the  business  of  subsidizing  such 
institutions  as  required  assistance  in  the  demands 
which  the  community  placed  upon  them  and  of  fur- 
nishing the  equipment  requisite  for  supplying  the 
students  with  the  proper  education  for  any  vocation 
crying  for  supply  at  a  given  time.  Within  the  space 
of  a  few  years,  perhaps  within  less  than  two,  such 
a  foundation  should  be  able  to  provide  sound  and 
adequate  knowledge  upon  which  radical  changes 
and  amicable  rearrangements  might  be  based.  It 
should  be  furnished  means  to  secure  full  publicity, 
so  that  those  to  be  served  and  taxed  might  have  a 
knowledge  of  wh^t  was  being  accomplished,  and  in 


120    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

the  end,  slowly,  it  is  true,  in  some  localities,  more 
rapidly  in  others,  provision  could  be  made  for  a  de- 
lineation of  courses  running  throughout  the  entire 
system.  The  function  of  such  a  foundation  would  be 
solely  an  educational  function  for  the  community, 
fitting  supply  to  demand,  an  analysis  of  demands 
being  a  prerequisite  for  the  equipment  for  supply 
and  a  delineation  of  courses  being  a  prerequisite  for 
utilization  of  equipment. 

It  is  perhaps  unwise  to  attempt  to  enter  into  the 
details  of  the  progress  of  such  a  foundation  beyond 
this  primary  course,  because  its  future  would  be  de- 
termined largely  by  the  character  of  the  men  form- 
ing the  group  and  would  perforce  differ  for  differing 
communities  even  as  the  communities  differ  in  their 
bents.  But  this  much  can  be  safely  said,  that  the 
goal  is  clear  —  the  furthering  to  the  utmost  of  the 
happiness  of  the  populace  under  study.  And  it  is 
conceivable  that  in  time,  by  a  tactful  presentation 
of  its  own  educational  function  in  the  community, 
the  foundation  might  exercise  the  most  beneficial 
influence  upon  the  progress  of  organization  of  the 
whole  educational  system  of  the  unit  from  the  low- 
est common  school  through  to  the  highest  post- 
graduate division.  By  keeping  all  informed  continu- 
ously of  its  analysis  of  demands  and  by  publishing 
its  suggestions  for  supply,  it  should  know  just  as 
perfectly  those  fitted  for  office  in  training  the  youth 


THE  MUNICIPAL  FOUNDATION         121 

for  the  demands  as  it  should  know  the  actual  de- 
mands in  every  occupation  to  be  filled  within  the 
limits  of  the  unit.  It  would  stand  as  an  intermediary 
between  the  supreme  court  of  education  and  the  act- 
ual administrative  body  of  the  educational  system. 
It  would  in  time,  in  its  future  life,  have  among  its 
members  those  who  reached  it  by  election,  and  the 
tenure  of  office  of  those  members  would,  of  course, 
be  determined  by  its  articles  of  incorporation. 

The  question  of  maintenance,  ever  an  important 
one,  must  of  necessity  be  dealt  with  in  advancing 
such  a  proposition  as  that  of  the  municipal  foun- 
dation. There  would,  of  course,  be  many  sources  of 
income  open  to  such  an  organization.  Probably, 
owing  to  the  disorganized  condition  existing  at  the 
present  time,  the  first  requisite  would  be  a  gift. 
However,  as  a  foundation  proved  its  serviceabil- 
ity and  value,  allowance  might  be  made  from  the 
funds  collected  by  general  taxation  in  the  given  unit. 
The  foundation  itself  might  even  in  time  be  fittingly 
the  arbiter  in  the  expenditure  of  funds  in  any  given 
area.  In  fact,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  conceive  of 
any  limitation  that  might  be  placed  upon  a  wisely 
and  judiciously  administered  foundation.  Another 
specific  source  of  income  might  be  furnished  by  the 
evolution  of  such  a  vision  as  that  held  by  the  late 
Dr.  Robert  Kennedy  Duncan,  which  resulted  in  the 
founding  of  the  Mellon  Institute  for  Industrial 


122    A  NEW  BASIS  FOJl  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

Research  in  the  city  of  Pittsburgh.  Under  proper 
organization  the  income  which  might  honestly  and 
fittingly  be  derived  from  the  contributions  of  this 
type  of  institution  to  the  industrial  welfare  of  the 
community  having  a  peculiar  industrial  bent,  would 
be  enormous.  Yearly,  by  royalties  from  the  indus- 
tries, the  foundation  could  have  returned  to  it  funds 
which  would  enable  it  to  augment  weak  elements 
in  the  educational  system  necessary  in  order  to  re- 
turn to  the  community  those  best  fi.tted  for  service 
within  its  territory.  In  this  way  not  only  would  the 
foundation  feed  the  industries,  but  also  the  indus- 
tries would,  in  turn,  through  royalties  paid,  feed  the 
foundation,  and  in  this  way  would  be  established  a 
benign  circle  for  the  welfare  of  the  entire  univer- 
sity unit. 


CHAPTER  XI 

DELINEATION   OF   COURSES 

One  result  necessarily  following  an  analysis  of  ul- 
timates,  and  perhaps  a  result  of  equal  importance  in 
the  promulgation  of  the  system  of  education  herein 
proposed,  since  it  would  be  a  most  powerful  force 
working  for  correlation,  would  be  a  division,  as  has 
already  been  hinted,  of  the  fields  of  knowledge  into 
departments  extending  throughout  the  whole  plan, 
and  a  delineation  of  courses  which  might  properly  be 
grouped  in  such  departments.  Essential  to  a  com- 
prehension of  the  subject-matter  presented  in  the 
following  chapter  dealing  with  departments  and 
departmentalization,  is  a  grasp  of  the  process  sug- 
gested as  feasible  to  employ  in  securing  the  knowl- 
edge requisite  for  a  general  and  thorough  delinea- 
tion. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  in  order  to  lead  the 
pupil  out  of  the  educational  system  at  any  one  of  the 
chosen  vocations,  a  careful  delineation  of  studies  to 
be  pursued  by  him,  from  the  time  of  his  entrance 
to  the  primary  school  to  the  time  of  his  leaving  the 
educational  system  to  undertake  his  work  in  the 
world,  would  be  required. 
-  One  important  function  of  the  municipal  foun- 


124    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

dation  for  the  study  and  advancement  of  community 
education  would  be  to  ascertain  by  a  canvass  of  the 
various  vocations,  which  we  have  termed  ultimates, 
what  subjects  furnish  the  necessary  foundation  for 
any  given  occupation  and  what  subjects  relate  them- 
selves so  closely  to  these  necessities  as  to  consti- 
tute beneficial  electives.  Such  a  classification,  based 
upon  information  furnished  by  those  practitioners 
actually  engaged  in  the  occupations  themselves, 
would  furnish  the  only  groundwork  for  the  educa- 
tional system  which  would  loose,  at  any  given  point, 
human  products  adequately  equipped  successfully 
to  enter  upon  the  work  of  the  vocation  which  they 
had  chosen  to  elect. 

That  we  may  better  understand  what  is  meant,  let 
us  choose  an  express  example.  Let  us  take  a  spe- 
cific ultimate,  surgery.  At  once,  owing  to  the  inad- 
equacy of  our  present  system  of  education,  we  en- 
counter diflSculties.  The  question  to  be  answered  in 
reference  to  this  particular  ultimate  is.  How  is  it  pos- 
sible to  arrive  at  a  delineation  of  courses  that  shall 
fit  a  surgeon  to  perform  his  vocational  function? 
Yet,  at  the  outset,  we  are  plunged  into  the  midst 
of  confusion  because  the  term  "surgery"  encom- 
passes within  itself  a  number  of  ultimates,  each  more 
or  less  definite,  each  requiring  a  marked  specializa- 
tion. We  find  that  as  time  has  gone  on,  this  particu- 
lar late  vocation  has  split  into  parts,  and  that  at  the 


DELINEATION  OF  COURSES  125 

present  proficiency  is  gained  only  by  concentrating 
upon  some  special  portion  of  the  field.  Furthermore, 
present  tendencies  would  seem  to  indicate  that  it  is 
not  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  ultimately  there 
will  be  a  demand  for  special  surgeons  for  almost 
every  region  of  the  human  body. 

Everywhere  we  find  evidences  of  the  passing  of 
the  general  surgeon  and  the  coming  of  the  special- 
ized surgeon.  An  examination  of  the  departments 
of  surgery  in  our  more  advanced  medical  schools  re- 
veals that  there  have  been  created  sub-departments 
governing  each  of  these  special  fields.  This  develop- 
ment has  probably  not  been  so  much  an  outgrowth 
of  the  wide  variation  required  in  the  technic  of  sur- 
gery itself,  as  an  outgrowth  of  advancement  made  in 
anatomy,  physiology,  and  chemistry.  The  increased 
medical  knowledge  born  of  progress  in  these  fields 
is  making  it  increasingly  difficult  for  any  generalized 
type  of  vocationalist  to  operate  successfully  on  all 
parts  of  the  human  body.  We  have,  therefore,  been 
forced  to  recognize  in  the  abdominal  region,  for  in- 
stance, four  or  five  special  operators,  all  of  whom 
have  the  right  before  their  fellow  practitioners  to 
enter  the  peritoneal  cavity.  In  the  pelvis,  we  must 
concede  the  rights  of  as  many  more,  and  in  that  vital 
part  of  the  human  body  crowned  by  the  calvarium, 
we  bow  to  special  surgeons  for  every  organ.  And 
at  the  moment  we  are  seeing  the  beginnings  of  the 


126    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

development  of  special  operators  dealing  with  the 
lungs  and  the  mediastinum. 

Such  developments  in  the  general  field  indicate 
the  trend  toward  specialization.  And  yet,  despite 
the  number  of  specialized  surgeons  which  we  find 
actively  practicing  at  the  present  day,  we  are  quite 
safe  in  saying  that  no  school  of  higher  education  has 
yet  taken  cognizance  of  the  demands  in  this  field. 
This  fact  is  important  to  us  for  the  reason  that  any 
attempts  now  made  to  delineate  courses  leading  to 
specialized  surgical  functions  must  suffer,  because 
of  the  inertia  of  our  medical  schools  to  progress  in 
the  process  of  demarkation,  and  because  of  the 
sovereignty  of  the  belief  that  a  certain  period  of 
years  must  dominate  the  prospective  surgeon's 
higher  vocational  education  as  similar  arbitrary 
time  divisions  have  dominated  his  lower  years  of 
education.  Little  provision  has  been  made  in  our 
medical  schools  to  shape  the  course  so  that  it  shall 
lead  to  a  definite  ultimate. 

Already,  so  complicated  has  the  situation  become 
that  the  reader  might  even  now  fittingly  question 
the  adequacy  of  our  chosen  ultimate  to  exemplify 
the  process.  But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  conditions 
would  have  been  the  same  had  we  taken  as  an  ex- 
ample engineering,  or  chemistry,  or  any  one  of  the 
late  vocations.  We  have  chosen  surgery  to  exemplify 
the  proposal,  not  because  the  lines  of  demarkation 


•  DELINEATION  OF  COURSES  127 

are  more  vaguely  defined  in  this  field  than  in  any 
other,  but  because  the  vagueness  here  is  typical  of 
the  vagueness  found  in  all  fields  and  because  present 
conditions  have  indicated  the  tendency  toward  the 
recognition  of  the  necessity  for  demarkation  to  an 
extreme  degree  in  this  particular  branch.  Vital 
impetus  has  also  been  given  to  this  movement,  in 
surgery,  by  the  developments  forced  by  the  present 
world  war.  EflBciency  in  handling  the  increased 
numbers  of  those  requiring  surgical  attention  on  the 
European  battle  fronts  has  demanded  the  creation 
of  such  a  situation  as  is  exemplified  to-day  in  many 
of  the  hospitals  in  France.  Here  surgeons  operate 
upon  the  same  organ  of  the  human  body  from  morn- 
ing until  night  on  all  cases  referred  to  them  from 
the  central  distributing  office,  and  this  means,  of 
course,  departmental  organization  on  the  basis  of 
regional  surgery.  Quite  aside  from  this  development 
caused  by  the  exigencies  of  unnatural  conditions, 
there  has  been  growing  another  department  in  more 
highly  developed  educational  institutions  in  this 
country  where  a  man  becomes  not  primarily  a  re- 
gional surgeon,  but  rather  a  functional  surgeon. 
Here  again,  the  increase  in  knowledge  in  anatomy, 
physiology,  and  chemistry  and  other  vital,  related 
sciences,  in  regard  to  given  groups  of  organs  is  re- 
sponsible for  this  development. 

While  there  is  unquestionably  truth  in  the  state- 


128    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

ment  that  specialization  precedes  the  degeneration 
of  the  race,  specialization  must  nevertheless  be 
looked  upon  as  a  principle  requisite  to  individual 
advancement  in  vocations.  This,  however,  is  but 
a  part  of  the  truth.  Specialization,  by  promoting 
the  individual's  opportunities  for  accomplishment, 
is  unquestionably  a  great  single  factor  in  promot- 
ing happiness.  Nor  does  this  fact  invalidate  the 
counter- truth  that  the  broader  the  education  the 
more  likely  the  possibility  of  fulfillment  of  com- 
munal requirements  and  the  attainment  of  happi- 
ness bom  of  such  fulfillment. 

The  educational  system  must  ultimately  recog- 
nize both  of  these  operating  principles.  There  must 
come  a  realization  that  in  addition  to  providing  a 
man  with  the  necessaries  of  life,  probably  with  a 
specialized  vocation  and  instruction  which  fill  the 
demands  of  such  functions,  there  must  also  be  a 
provision  for  the  study  of  those  contributory  but  not 
necessary  subjects  which  will  enable  the  individual 
to  fulfill  those  demands  of  his  communal  existence 
which  are  not  primarily  conjoined  with  the  demands 
of  his  specialized  vocation. 

Also  another  fact  must  gain  recognition.  Individ- 
uals vary.  Vocationalists  and  culturists  and  all  in 
the  educational  groups  must  acknowledge  that  it  is 
quite  possible  that  there  are  in  existence  certain  in- 
dividuals without  receptors  for  types  of  education 


DELINEATION  OF  COURSES  129 

which  all  groups  attempt  to  force  upon  them.  A 
general  recognition  of  this  one  fact  would  eliminate, 
as  our  suggestions  for  departmentalization  if  put  in 
practice  would  probably  eliminate,  a  great  stum- 
bling-block in  the  progress  of  education  generally. 
It  is  conceivable  further  that  the  recognition  of  the 
fact  that  as  individuals  differ  in  groups,  they  vary 
not  only  in  the  kind  and  number  of  receptors  for 
various  kinds  of  knowledge,  but  they  widely  differ 
also  in  their  ability  to  digest  or  assimilate  or  corre- 
late within  their  own  physical  structures  impres- 
sions which  come  to  them  from  the  various  outside 
sources. 

But  let  us  return  again  to  our  question,  How  shall 
we  arrive  at  a  delineation  of  courses  for  our  special- 
ized surgeon  of  the  future?  Our  methods  of  analysis 
in  this  field  it  is  quite  conceivable  might  in  the  be- 
ginning be  crude  because  we  have  not  yet  had  suffi- 
cient practice  in  such  a  procedure.  We  have  sug- 
gested that  the  one  way  out  of  the  difficulty  would 
be  to  establish  a  municipal  foundation  having  for 
one  of  its  functions  the  making  of  analyses.  With 
the  establishment  of  a  foundation  it  would  become 
possible  to  ask  any  given  five  hundred  surgeons  to 
make  a  survey  of  the  course  of  their  education  from 
earliest  childhood  and  to  give  to  the  foundation  a 
delineation  of  what  they  conceive  would  constitute 
the  proper  course  leading  to  such  an  ultimate.  This 


130    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

would  mean,  let  us  suppose,  that  the  foundation 
would  be  presented  with  personal  analyses  from  five 
hundred  sources.  Out  of  this  mass  might  come,  let 
us  suppose,  fiity  per  cent  of  courses  upon  which  all 
would  agree  as  necessary.  This  information  then 
might  form  the  foundation  for  the  beginnings  of  a  de- 
lineation of  the  proper  course  for  surgeons  of  special- 
ized type.  Upon  twenty  per  cent  of  the  balance  of 
courses  perhaps  ninety  or  eighty  or  seventy  per  cent 
would  be  in  agreement.  These  courses  thus  agreed 
upon  might  be  drafted  in  the  delineation  of  courses 
for  specialized  surgeons,  either  into  the  compulsory 
field  or  into  the  elective  field,  and  so  on.  The  ques- 
tionnaire would  have  to  incorporate  an  indication 
that  the  answer  should  encompass  not  only  the 
most  specific  functions  in  life,  but  also  the  com- 
munal, national,  and  international  function  of  the 
surgeon.  In  this  way  a  beginning  might  be  made. 

Changes  most  certainly  would  come  in  the  course 
of  time.  These  changes,  however,  would  be  based, 
always,  upon  the  evolution  of  knowledge.  Each 
community  would  begin  to  work  out  for  itself  the 
delineation  of  courses  extending  back  to  the  earliest 
primary  departments.  Gross  mistakes  would  be 
inevitable,  if  we  attempted,  now,  without  knowl- 
edge, to  prescribe  any  form  of  delineation.  We  are 
quite  sure,  however,  that  the  prescription  of  deline- 
ation, which  is  based  upon  a  theoretical  foundation 


DELINEATION  OF  COURSES  '131 

such  as  is  made  to-day  by  theoretical  teachers  who 
have  never  been  practitioners  of  many  of  the  func- 
tions for  which  they  attempt  to  delineate,  is  un- 
sound. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  to  be  denied 
that  among  many  of  the  vocations  the  practitioners 
themselves  are  not  fitted  to  assist  very  materially  in 
this  delineation  because  they  have  been  deprived  of 
education  in  the  habits  of  thought  which  would  en- 
able them  to  utilize  an  influence  which  would  be  of 
the  utmost  value  in  preparing  them  for  their  given 
vocation.  Nevertheless,  it  would  not  be  long,  if  this 
demand  were  created  in  the  habit  of  thought,  before 
all  practitioners  in  every  field  of  endeavor  would  be 
able  to  assist  in  making  the  necessary  corrections  in 
the  first  delineation. 

In  the  first  delineation  a  certain  amount  of  arbi- 
trary determination  would  be  necessary,  especially 
in  the  lower  fields  of  education,  because  it  might  be 
unsafe  to  take  the  advice  of  the  more  unintelli- 
gent members  of  the  human  family  in  the  matter  of 
what  would  be  wisest  to  elect  in  making  one's  self 
useful  in  any  given  community.  At  the  top  of  the 
human  family,  our  analysis  by  individuals  might  be 
a  sound  basis,  but  we  should  descend  with  less  assur- 
ance to  the  middle  group.  Below  this  group  surety 
of  determination  of  advisable  courses  would  grow 
less  and  less  until  an  unsafe  area  would  undoubtedly 
be  reached  in  which  it  would  be  necessary  to  admit 


132    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

more  and  more  paternalism,  and  possibly  we  should 
arrive  finally  at  a  group  where  complete  paternalism 
over  prescribed  courses  would,  in  the  beginning,  be 
necessary.  Probably,  at  the  lower  level  the  primary 
desire  might  be  for  an  education  that  would  dispense 
with  work  and  allow  only  for  pleasure.  Here  a 
paternal  authority  would  certainly  be  necessary  to 
demand  that  pleasure  should  only  be  a  correlative 
of  labor.  An  analysis  of  the  most  highly  developed 
members  would  be  a  sound  basis  for  a  delineation 
of  courses  throughout  the  system  for  a  given  group, 
whereas  an  analysis  of  the  lower  grades  of  intelli- 
gence would  form  a  very  uncertain  foundation  for  a 
delineation  of  courses  for  them.  Therefore  a  deline- 
ation would  vary  from  the  point  where  no  paternal- 
ism was  necessary  to  the  point  where  almost  com- 
plete paternalism  would  be  necessary  to  draft,  for 
each  member  of  the  entering  group,  the  compulsory 
and  the  elective  studies.  This  paternalism,  exercised 
upon  those  whose  ultimates  exist  in  the  humbler 
vocations,  would  insist  that  those  who  are  sent  out 
for  the  more  lowly  tasks  be  taught  the  highest  ulti- 
mates of  citizenship  and  saving  and,  in  addition, 
whatever  beneficial  and  cultural  subjects  the  limited 
time  allowed  them  would  permit,  to  lead  them  to  the 
best  conduction  of  themselves  and  their  affairs  while 
doing  even  the  smallest  tasks  required  by  the  most 
meager  mental  equipment. 


DELINEATION  OF  COURSES  133 

It  is  easy  to  foresee  a  number  of  obstacles  in  the 
way  of  such  a  delineation.  Among  those  to  be 
reckoned  with  would  be,  of  course,  union  domina- 
tion of  trade,  the  necessity  for  providing  additions 
to  the  family  budget,  the  multitudinous  institutions 
providing  similar  equipment,  the  lack  of  a  definite 
policy  for  any  unit  of  population,  the  dearth  of 
knowledge  in  regard  to  the  relation  of  supply  to 
demand,  and  the  want  of  properly  trained  student 
guides. 

With  such  obstacles  hindering  the  progress  of  a 
sound  educational  system,  the  question  immediately 
presents  itself,  What  can  be  done  to  reduce  the  op- 
position? The  incontrovertible  answer  is  that  edu- 
cation itself  must  be  the  agent  in  removing  opposi- 
tion. Each  year,  as  a  municipal  foundation  could,  as 
a  result  of  its  analyses,  furnish  the  populace  of  the 
given  community  with  a  sound  equipment  of  knowl- 
edge, each  year,  as  a  result  of  more  careful  guidance 
of  students,  the  families  would  be  raised  to  higher 
points  of  efficiency,  obstacles  to  the  progress  of 
the  system  would  disappear.  And  since  the  system 
would  in  the  long  run,  by  fitting  its  products  imme- 
diately to  assume  their  given  vocations  at  the  time 
of  their  departure,  increase  the  family  budget,  it 
would  in  like  measure  raise  the  standard  of  living 
and  the  consequent  happiness  of  the  householders 
forming  the  community.    Were  this  the  case  it  is 


134    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

certainly  within  reason  to  suppose  that  the  popu- 
lation, as  a  whole,  would  come  to  see  clearly  the 
value  of  such  a  system.  The  burden  of  the  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  would  rest  in  the  hands  of  the 
foundation  itself. 

A  pursuance  of  this  thought  for  no  matter  how 
short  a  time  will,  we  believe,  be  sufficient  to  indi- 
cate how  tremendous  would  be  the  saving  to  all 
were  a  delineation  of  courses  throughout  the  ed- 
ucational system  accomplished.  We  believe  that 
not  only  would  a  better  practitioner  be  produced  by 
complete  course  delineation,  but  also  that  if,  with 
such  complete  delineation,  there  were,  in  addition, 
put  into  operation  a  plan  for  departmentalization, 
similar  probably  to  that  suggested  in  the  following 
chapter,  to  facilitate  the  emergence  of  all  individu- 
als entering  the  educational  system,  the  best  prac- 
titioner might  be  produced  in  the  shortest  period 
of  time.  If  those  results  were  to  follow  course 
delineation  and  departmentalization,  certainly  no 
small  contribution  to  the  sum  total  of  human  hap- 
piness would  be  made. 


CHAPTER    XII 

DEPARTMENTALIZATION 

Theee  is  no  good  and  justifiable  reason  for  the  exist- 
ence of  such  arbitrary  time  boundaries  as  at  present 
limit  the  activity  and  progress  of  individual  mem- 
bers of  our  groups  who  present  themselves  to  the 
educational  system  for  training.  We  have  long  been 
dominated  by  the  apparent  necessity  of  moving 
groups  of  children  over  a  given  distance  in  a  given 
period  of  time.  Our  modern  educational  system  is 
built  upon  this  idea,  that  such  a  group  can  only  be 
moved  over  such  a  given  distance  in  such  a  given 
time,  regardless  of  the  different  ultimates  of  the 
group  and  equally  regardless  of  the  varying  mental 
capacities  of  the  individuals  who  compose  it.  Not 
only  do  the  restrictions  of  the  present  arbitrary  time 
boundaries  wholly  militate  against  the  brighter  ele- 
ments of  the  entire  group,  but  they  reduce  whole 
classes  to  the  level  of  the  average  student  and  by  so 
doing  deprive  the  Nation  of  the  increment  which 
its  system  of  education  should  bring  to  it  by  facil- 
itating the  emergence  of  the  brighter  students. 

As  we  are  to-day  organized,  our  common-school 
equipment  has  apparently  little  or  no  elasticity 
because   subjects  are  grouped  under  individuals. 


136    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

Oftentimes  these  subjects  are  wholly  unrelated  and 
our  primary  teachers  are  commonly  supposed  to 
be  equipped  to  handle  any  subject  in  the  primary 
schools.  In  fact,  many  teachers  handle  all  subjects 
that  are  presented  to  a  group  of  children  during  a 
given  year.  Nor  does  this  condition  exist  in  rural 
schools  alone.  Perhaps  the  simplest  method  of  get- 
ting away  from  this  restricted  form  of  organization 
is  immediately  to  understand  the  other  factor  which 
would  work  for  correlation  in  such  a  system  as  we 
have  proposed,  i.e.,  the  principle  of  departmen- 
talization which  has  been  so  great  an  influence  in 
business  life. 

We  have  already  intimated  in  a  brief  way  what  is 
herein  meant  by  departmentalization.  Defined  in 
broadest  terms,  it  is  but  the  correlation  of  the  whole 
system  within  a  given  university  unit.  Inasmuch 
as  this  proposal  suggests  changes  which  are  radical 
departures  from  the  conditions  at  present  obtaining, 
it  is  necessary,  for  the  time  being,  to  put  present 
conditions  out  of  mind  and  to  allow  our  thoughts  to 
travel  solely  to  the  principles  which  have  been  oper- 
ating in  the  most  successful  organization.  The  effect 
of  the  application  of  these  principles  here  convinces 
us  that  they  are  the  soundest  to  apply  in  the  educa- 
tional system  in  the  gross  university  units. 

The  diagram  which  follows  is  an  attempt  to  pre- 
sent, in  a  form  more  graphic  than  words,  what  is 


"^'^'"^"^     SEoiNNiNC  Secondary   Continuation  "undercraduate  Continoat/c; 


^ 


CA 

c 

It 

o 

a 

o 

m 

m 

e. 

3 

d 

r 

R 

-t 

i, 

o 

6 

.,J? 


(^R-ADUATE   AND    LATE  VOCATIONAL 


DEPARTMENTALIZATION  137 

meant  by  departmentalization.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  this  chart  does  not  claim  for 
itself  completeness.  Only  a  municipal  foundation, 
the  duties  of  which  have  been  broadly  sketched  in 
preceding  chapters,  could  fill  in,  with  the  necessary 
degree  of  accuracy,  the  details  lacking  in  the  present 
chart.  But,  after  all,  it  is  not  the  details  that  are  of 
primary  importance.  The  general  plan  of  depart- 
mentalization will  be,  we  believe,  adequate  to  pre- 
sent the  principles  despite  the  dearth  of  details. 

From  this  chart  it  will  be  seen  that,  under  our  pro- 
posed plan  of  departmentalization,  certain  depart- 
ments would  extend  continuously  from  the  lowest 
point  of  the  system  to  the  highest,  from  the  begin- 
ning of  education  through  to  any  point  of  emergence 
into  any  given  vocation.  While,  as  we  have  said,  no 
attempt  has  been  made  to  include  all  departments 
which  might  ultimately  be  necessary,  it  is  suflS- 
ciently  clear  that  the  fundamental  departments, 
since  we  are  dealing  primarily  with  America,  would 
be  English  and  citizenship. 

What  might  be  included  under  the  general  caption 
of  English  is  fairly  well  defined.  Citizenship,  how- 
ever, is  a  more  elastic  term  and  would  encompass 
several  departments,  such  as  history,  government, 
geography,  physiology,  hygiene,  and  mathematics. 
These  departments  would  run  throughout  from  the 
primary  division  through  the  post-graduate  school. 


138    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

Other  departments  would  begin  only  in  the  second- 
ary division  —  chemistry,  physics,  Romance  lan- 
guages, German,  and  biology,  for  example.  Others 
would  begin  in  the  undergraduate  school  and  still 
others  in  the  graduate  school.  In  the  graduate 
school  would  begin  the  study  of  various  fields  of 
work  which  meet  special  late  vocational  demands 
requiring  both  intensive  and  extensive  preparation, 
such  specialization  as  is  required  for  our  late  voca- 
tions or  present-day  professions.  The  delineation 
of  these  courses  could  be  outlined  again  only  after 
the  fundamental  analysis  of  the  demands  of  a  com- 
munity had  been  made. 

The  most  immediate  results  of  such  departmen- 
talization would,  of  course,  manifest  themselves  as 
effects  upon  students  entering  the  system.  Let  us 
now  enter  a  group  of  children  into  an  educational 
system  which  has  been  departmentalized.  In  such 
a  group  would  be  children  of  all  mental  equipment, 
home  influences,  and  variation  of  ultimates.  The 
first  essential  for  the  mass  would  be  the  provision  of 
an  education  for  them  in  the  irreducible  minimum 
which  must  form  a  foundation  for  all  their  future 
education,  i.e.,  there  must  be  for  all,  regardless  of 
vocation,  regardless  of  ultimates,  an  irreducible 
minimum,  in  certain  fields,  which  must  be  taken  the 
same  for  all.  In  this  irreducible  minimum  the  study 
of  the  language  which  the  individual  must  use,  — 


DEPARTMENTALIZATION  139 

that  is,  in  America,  English,  —  and  such  other  sub- 
jects as  will  train  him  to  perform  his  duties  as  a  citi- 
zen, must  find  a  place.  The  irreducible  minimum 
would  be  represented  in  our  departmentalized  sys- 
tem by  those  departments  which  extend  from  the 
lowest  point  to  the  highest. 

The  next  necessity  would  be  to  allow  children  to 
travel  as  rapidly  through  the  system  as  their  recep- 
tivity would  permit.  Emphasis  would  be  placed 
solely  upon  the  probable  force  that  would  drive  any 
individual  in  a  given  group  any  distance  in  any  time, 
and  the  rapidity  of  the  progress  and  the  distance 
traveled  would  be  dependent  solely  upon  the  ability 
and  the  capacity  of  the  traveler.  Arbitrary  time 
divisions  would  be  entirely  eradicated  and  progres- 
sion would  of  necessity  be  closely  related  to  the 
study  of  the  individual  children,  through  a  depart- 
ment established  for  that  purpose,  in  order  that 
the  capacity  of  students  might  be  gauged  and  not 
flooded  to  the  point  of  injury. 

The  school  physicians,  the  visiting  nurses  of  the 
school,  who  ascertain  home  conditions  and  the  at- 
titude of  parents  toward  education  in  general,  the 
teacher  who  has  charge  of  a  given  part  of  a  depart- 
ment, would  all  furnish  information  important  to 
the  welfare  of  the  student.  The  statistics  gathered 
by  these  agents  would  be  carefully  tabulated  in  one 
department  and  the  child  advised  and  guided  in 


140    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

the  light  of  the  knowledge  thus  gained.  The  progres- 
sion of  the  student  might  be  easily  accomplished 
when  left  in  the  hands  of  the  department  whose 
sole  duty  it  was  to  undertake  student  guidance  and 
arrange  classes  for  students  on  the  basis  of  the 
knowledge  it  possessed. 

It  is  conceivable  that  a  percentage  of  our  entering 
group  under  adequate  guidance  would  complete  the 
work  of  the  primary  grades  in  much  less  time  than  it 
would  take  a  similar  group  at  present.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  small  percentage  might  require  a  longer 
period  of  time  than  is  required  at  present.  The 
advantage,  however,  would  be  that  the  drones  and 
the  backward  students  would  not  reduce  whole 
classes  of  varying  capacity  to  the  dead  level  of  the 
average.  Another  percentage  would,  of  course,  early 
exhibit  the  fact  that  they  were  in  no  way  fitted  for 
the  educational  system  provided  to  take  care  of 
normal  children  and  they,  perforce,  would  be  ex- 
creted at  the  earliest  moment  in  order  that  other 
methods  applicable  in  the  training  of  subnormal 
children  might  be  employed.  Thus,  even  in  the 
primary  school,  a  process  of  excretion  would  go  on 
through  the  department  of  student  guidance. 

As  the  first  members  of  our  group  reached  the 
end  of  the  provision  made  in  the  primary  division  of 
any  given  subject,  the  necessity  for  continuing  into 
the  secondary  school  special  studies  in  which  profi- 


DEPARTMENTALIZATION  141 

ciency  had  been  shown  would  present  the  first  serious 
difficulty.  Under  our  present  system  the  student 
must  have  compassed  the  work  of  all  departments  in 
which  he  has  entered  in  the  primary  school  before 
passing  on  across  the  first  arbitrary  time  division 
into  a  secondary  school.  This,  of  course,  is  one  of 
the  most  serious  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  applica- 
tion of  the  principles  which  we  have  attempted  to 
outline,  existent  in  the  present  form  of  organiza- 
tion. 

It  will  readily  be  perceived  that  unless  the  deline- 
ation of  courses  arrived  at  by  the  analysis  of  ulti- 
mates  be  continued  by  departmentalization  from  the 
lowest  to  the  highest  point  in  the  system,  the  prin- 
ciple itself  could  not  be  successfully  put  in  operation. 
All  efforts  at  the  present  time  are  being  expended  to 
discover  the  expedient  which  will  obviate  the  ne- 
cessity for  accepting  the  fullest  application  of  this 
principle.  Perhaps  it  is  the  practice  of  wisdom  to 
face  directly  the  question  and  ask  why  the  principle 
of  delineation  of  courses  and  departments  should 
not  extend  throughout  the  whole  system  and  why 
the  very  elastic  principle  of  departmentalization 
should  not  be  extended  through  to  the  smallest 
primary  units. 

What  is  proposed  here  is,  that  a  student  be  al- 
lowed to  push  forward  as  rapidly  as  possible  in  those 
departments  in  which  he  has  shown  peculiar  capa- 


142    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

bility .  Those  who  first  reached  the  end  of  the  course, 
in  any  department  which  the  primary  educational 
equipment  could  give,  would  travel  from  those 
classes  in  which  they  had  finished  to  the  second- 
ary equipment  for  that  unit.  It  might  conceivably 
happen,  without  any  diflSculty,  that  for  certain 
classes  some  members  of  our  given  group  might  be 
carrying  on  work  in  the  primary  school  simultane- 
ously with  advanced  work  in  other  classes  in  the 
secondary  school,  always,  of  course,  under  proper 
guidance.  And  so  on  the  principle  would  operate 
throughout  the  system.  Furthermore,  it  is  conceiv- 
able that  our  group  which  was  entered  might  be  at 
the  end  of  ten  years  disseminated  throughout  the 
whole  educational  system  to  different  points  of 
departure,  varying  always  with  the  capacity  of  the 
student  and  the  requirements  of  the  ultimates  which 
the  individual  had  elected  to  reach.  The  result  of 
this  would  be  that  a  constant  supply  of  individuals 
properly  equipped  would  be  furnished,  to  take  care 
of  the  different  demands  existing  in  the  community. 
The  only  period  at  which  group  assembling  would 
occur  then  would  be  at  the  period  of  entrance  and 
until  one  student  showed  an  accumulation  of  knowl- 
edge sufficient  to  take  the  first  step  in  progress.  It  is 
also  conceivable  that  a  department  of  student  guid- 
ance would,  through  its  agents,  sit  in  class  after  class 
and  determine,  by  a  survey,  the  bents  of  the  individ- 


DEPARTMENTALIZATION  143 

ual  students  in  the  room.  This  provision  for  the 
super-normal  would  seem,  to  us,  far  more  important 
than  provision  for  the  average  student  and  the 
infra-normal. 

It  would  be  possible  under  such  a  system  for  any 
group  which  presented  itself  for  treatment  to  be 
handled  individually.  Each  member  would  be  pre- 
sented with  opportunities  for  assimilation  and 
growth.  A  thorough  grounding  in  the  fundamentals 
required  by  his  particular  department  ultimate 
would  be  furnished  as  rapidly  as  his  capacity  for 
observation  would  admit,  and  in  addition  he  would 
be  allowed  to  select  with  almost  unrestricted  free- 
dom from  any  of  the  contributory  fields  of  learning 
which  his  natural  capacities  sought.  He  would  fur- 
thermore be  allowed  the  privilege,  which  is  after  all 
his  right,  of  setting  with  his  own  brain  the  pace 
which  he  was  fitted  to  hold  in  the  race.  The  domi- 
nation of  the  mediocre  and  the  average  over  the 
able  and  the  eager  would  be  forever  at  an  end.  And 
equally  important,  the  individual,  produced  from  a 
system  such  as  this,  would  present,  at  the  time  of  his 
departure,  those  individual  characteristics  which 
nature  has  ordained  shall  be  the  most  valuable  pos- 
session of  man,  our  present  educational  system  to 
the  contrary  notwithstanding.  i 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  we  believe  that  the 
proposed  solution  of  present  educational  entangle- 


144    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

ments  can  be  summed  up  in  the  one  word  "depart- 
mentalization."  But  the  end  is  not  here. 

The  idea  carries  with  it  the  application  of  election 
in  government  to  the  whole  system.  The  present 
quarrels  existing  in  the  educational  world  between 
colleges  and  secondary  schools,  between  secondary 
schools  and  primary  schools,  have  their  origin  in  the 
same  condition.  Complaints  of  the  domination  of 
upper  groups  are  met  by  complaints  of  a  lack  of 
sympathy  on  the  part  of  lower  groups,  and  so  on  it 
goes  throughout  the  entire  organization.  This  would 
be  completely  wiped  away  if  the  plan  suggested  were 
put  in  operation.  We  should  no  longer  be  distressed 
with  the  problem  of  conciliating  those  in  authority 
in  the  primary  schools  who  object  to  the  domination 
of  standards  set  by  those  in  the  secondary  schools, 
and  in  like  manner,  those  in  the  secondary  schools 
who  complain  of  the  domination  of  standards  set 
by  universities,  colleges,  and  institutions  of  higher 
learning.  If  this  one  result  were  secured,  much 
available  energy  which  at  the  present  time  is  being 
wasted  in  useless  controversy  might  be  turned  into 
channels  where  it  could  be  expended  for  the  produc- 
tion of  good.  This  would  be  but  the  recognition  of 
the  principle  —  a  recognition  which  must,  in  the 
course  of  time,  become  inevitable  —  that  the  educa- 
tional system  should  be  shaped  not  by  the  demands 
of  any  one  institution  based  upon  its  equipment, 


DEPARTMENTALIZATION  145 

but  rather  by  the  demands  of  the  population  which 
the  various  institutions  are  to  serve.  Here,  once 
again,  it  is  apparent  that  demands  can  only  be  as- 
certained by  an  analysis  of  the  ultimates. 

Here  again  also  we  must  face  the  fact  that  if 
democracy  is  sound,  its  principles  should  be  applied 
to  our  educational  system ,  and  it  n  o  w  becomes  neces- 
sary to  determine  the  governmental  equipment  best 
suited  to  the  furthering  of  such  a  system  as  is  herein 
proposed.  And  it  would  seem  that  the  most  repre- 
sentative and  democratic  governing  body  would  be 
one  which  would  contain  among  its  members  repre- 
sentatives elected  from  each  section  of  each  depart- 
ment. This  body  might  be  called,  as  we  have  indi- 
cated on  the  chart,  a  central  board  of  departments. 
Knowledge  has  been  growing  rapidly  with  the 
progress  of  organization,  and  those  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  administration  of  affairs  even  in 
the  smallest  department  of  organization  must  be 
brought  into  direct  relationship  with  those  in  other 
departments  in  order  that  the  work  may  be  properly 
correlated  and  that  the  best  results  for  the  entire 
organization  may  be  secured.  In  the  proposed  plan, 
as  we  have  said,  each  section  of  each  department 
would  elect  its  representatives  to  the  central  board. 
Those  operating  in  the  departmental  fields  would  be 
entitled  by  virtue  of  their  position  to  be  represented 
in  the  various  administrative  groups  with  which 


146    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

they  are  concerned.  The  departments  of  the  pri- 
mary section  would  elect,  the  departments  of  the 
secondary  section  would  elect,  of  the  undergradu- 
ate and  graduate  sections  also,  and  in  this  way  the 
various  bodies  all  would  be  correlated.  In  this  way, 
too,  would  the  difficulties  which  now  set  primary 
groups  warring  against  secondary  groups  and  sec- 
ondary groups  against  college  groups  be,  by  repre- 
sentation, obliterated  and  out  of  it  all  would  come 
the  union  of  purposes,  the  resultant  purpose  being 
to  further  the  interests,  in  every  possible  way  and 
as  expeditiously  as  capacity  would  admit,  of  every 
individual  from  the  time  of  his  entrance  into  the 
system  to  the  time  of  his  departure  regardless  of 
how  low  or  how  high  that  point  of  departure  be. 

This  central  board  of  departments  would,  further- 
more, also  have  local  autonomy.  The  policy  and 
budget  under  which  the  administrative  group  would 
operate  would  be  determined  in  turn  by  the  muni- 
cipal foundation  upon  which  the  board  of  depart- 
ments itself  would,  in  time,  have  official  represen- 
tation. The  board  of  departments  in  conjunction 
with  the  municipal  foundation  would  then  have  the 
power  of  appointing  to  the  supreme  court  of  edu- 
cation suggested  in  an  early  chapter.  The  policy 
of  the  whole  system  would  be  determined  by  the 
analysis  which  would  take  place  in  the  foundation. 
The  local  policies  would  also  bear  the  influence 


DEPARTMENTALIZATION  147 

which  the  analysis  by  the  foundation  would  fur- 
nish, but  in  each  administrative  unit  the  fullest 
autonomy  could  be  allowed  for  the  fitting  of  the 
equipment  to  the  bent  of  the  unit  which  it  was  to 
serve. 

This  type  of  organization,  so  elastic  and  yet  so 
purposeful,  would,  we  believe,  help  to  secure  for  the 
university  unit  the  most  efficient  economy  and  the 
most  beneficial  results.  Details  of  an  organization 
such  as  this  could  be  presented  only  as  resultants  of 
the  analysis  which  would  be  provided  in  the  first 
instance  by  the  voluntary  municipal  foundation. 
Here  again  lack  of  details  is  not  important.  The 
important  immediate  necessity  would  seem  to  be 
that  the  beginning  be  made  under  proper  leadership. 
By  moving  backward  and  forward  between  the 
highest  educational  provision  and  the  lowest  build- 
ing unit,  to  find  our  way  by  analysis  downward  or 
by  synthesis  upward,  and  by  so  doing  to  cope  with 
the  difficulties,  one  after  another  as  they  are  encoun- 
tered, it  is  quite  within  reason  to  suppose  that  it 
might  be  possible  to  work  out  the  proper  solution 
for  the  entire  problem.  Day  by  day  thereafter,  diffi- 
culties would  appear  and  disappear,  and  with  the 
disappearance  of  each,  progress  would  be  made  not 
only  toward  a  delineation  of  the  details  of  organiza- 
tion, but  also  toward  the  ultimate  welfare  of  the 
community.  All  great  evolutionary  processes  have 


148    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

come  in  a  similar  way  and  have,  when  held  true  to 
their  purpose  and  vision,  gradually,  step  by  step, 
arrived  at  the  ultimate  toward  which  they  were 
aiming. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

CONCLUSION 

There  is  magic  in  the  distance  where  the  sea  line  meets  the  sky. 
It  shall  call^to  singing  seamen  till  the  fount  o'  song  is  dry. 

Alfred  Notxs 

The  adequacy  of  a  system  of  training  must  be 
gauged  by  the  progress  of  the  society  which  fosters  it 
as  well  as  by  the  fitness  or  unfitness  of  its  products. 
It  would  be  flying  in  the  face  of  truth  to  contend  that 
the  American  Nation  has  not  progressed  and  that 
this  progress  has  not  been  due  to  the  diffusion  of 
education  and  the  dissemination  of  knowledge.  It 
would  be  equally  futile  to  argue  concerning  what 
advancements  might  have  been  made  had  we  pos- 
sessed, up  to  the  present,  a  different  system.  It  is 
not  purposed  here  to  indulge  in  this  species  of 
a-priori  reasoning. 

One  fact  is ,  however,  clear  and  that  is ,  that  despite 
the  national  progress  made  through  education,  the 
tendency  on  the  part  of  educators  has  ever  been  to 
make  old  bottles  accommodate  new  wine  quite  re- 
gardless of  either  the  size  of  the  containers  or  of  the 
quantity  of  the  vintage.  Little  can  be  gained,  how- 
ever, by  attempting  to  measure  the  distance  our 
educational  system  has  lagged  behind  those  leading 
and  progressive  institutions  which  have  lifted  this 


150    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

Nation  to  its  present  stage  of  development.  Nor  are 
the  causes  of  this  sluggishness  important  save  as 
they  indicate  obstacles  still  to  be  surmounted ;  prob- 
lems still  to  be  solved. 

In  an  early  chapter  of  this  study  we  suggested  five 
leading  questions,  the  satisfactory  answering  of 
which  would,  we  believe,  indicate  the  way  out  of  our 
present  gross  educational  diflSculties.  And  our  aim 
in  the  subsequent  pages,  despite  our  wanderings, 
has  been  ever  toward  the  answering  of  these. 

To  epitomize,  we  believe  that  the  chief  cause  for 
the  inadequacy  of  our  present  system  of  education 
in  America  is  the  neglect  on  the  part  of  all  educa- 
tional institutions  to  apply  to  themselves  and  to 
the  system  as  a  whole  the  laws  of  supply  and  de- 
mand. Coupled  with  this  is  their  failure  to  give  any 
large  amount  of  consideration  to  regional  variances 
and  community  bents,  and  their  willingness,  save 
when  pressure  has  been  exerted  by  external  force, 
to  allow  the  industries  and  business  corporations  to 
exploit  their  products  during  the  early  years  follow- 
ing graduation. 

Growth  and  innovations  have  both  contributed  to 
the  difficulties  encountered  by  the  system  in  what- 
ever endeavors  it  has  made  to  lead  rather  than  fol- 
low in  the  onward  pushing  movements.  The  old 
containers  have  become  quite  too  small:  the  new 
vintage  quite  too  large.    And  so  rapidly  have  the 


CONCLUSION  151 

problems  multiplied  that  our  educators  generally 
have  not  been  able  to  keep  pace.  Universities, 
especially,  have  been  singularly  unable  to  prescribe 
for  themselves  any  satisfactory  formulae  for  raising 
the  average  graduate  to  a  position  of  maximum  indi- 
viduality and  usefulness.  We  have  persisted  in  using 
the  forms  with  which  we  started.  We  have  not  gen- 
erally admitted  that  those  forms  will  no  longer  pro- 
vide for  the  development  which  we  have  gained  by 
their  use. 

It  would  be  foolish  to  maintain  that  uninterest- 
ing and  unfitted  as  is  our  average  college  graduate, 
he  would  have  been  better  had  he  not  passed 
through  the  educational  mill.  He  is  what  he  is  both 
because  of  and  in  spite  of  the  system.  It  is  only  in 
the  exceptional  case  that  a  college  education  is  a 
doubtful  asset  or  a  liability,  and  even  in  these  cases 
the  responsibility  may  rest  jointly  upon  both  the 
individual  and  the  system. 

Our  progress  in  education  has  truly  been  a  curious 
one.  We  have  gone  from  the  hard  and  arbitrary  cur- 
riculum, with  its  primary  insistence  upon  training 
the  memory  and  the  consequent  devitalization  of 
valuable  and  beneficial  subjects,  to  the  free  elective 
system,  with  its  wholesale  invitations  to  follow  the 
paths  of  least  resistance,  back  to  a  half-hearted  com- 
promise somewhere  between  the  two  extremes,  and 
we  have  arrived  at  what.?    Certainly  at  little  more 


152    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

than  an  educational  jumble.  A  maelstrom  in  which 
the  maximum  amount  of  theory  and  the  minimum 
amount  of  practice  whirl  those  who  are  thrown  into 
it  round  and  round  for  definitely  fixed  periods  of 
time,  to  be  cast  out  as  flotsam  for  another  period  un- 
til corporate  business  and  industrial  organizations 
can  accomplish  that  which  could  and  should  have 
been  done  by  general  education.  We  have  been 
devoting  our  energies  to  the  elevation  of  the  degen- 
erate and  the  child  of  arrested  development.  We 
have,  through  our  play  schools,  attempted  to  fit  our 
children  to  enjoy  life  by  feeding  them  upon  the  pap 
manufactured  by  theoretical  educators  possessing 
little  knowledge  of  the  vital  sciences  of  life.  And 
while  this  process  has  been  going  on  and  funds  have 
been  diverted  and  directed  into  these  less  profitable 
channels,  those  of  the  same  generation,  more  fortu- 
nate in  their  mental  equipment  and  eager  to  learn 
and  to  progress,  have  been  chained  to  the  dull  and 
to  the  average  and  have  been  allowed  to  proceed 
only  so  fast  as  they  were  able  to  drag  this  burden 
with  them.  Search  where  we  will,  with  the  single 
exception  possibly  of  Gary,  there  can  be  found  few 
organized  endeavors  to  facilitate  the  progress  and 
early  emergence  of  the  brilliant  students.  So-called 
"  trailer  "  sections  which  have  been  formed  in  some 
classes  in  our  various  universities  into  which  are 
shunted  the  poorly  equipped  and  less  zealous  stu- 


CONCLUSION  153 

dents  in  order  that  the  progress  of  the  more  intel- 
ligent may  not  be  hampered,  while  representing 
attempts  to  grapple  with  the  problem  have  ever 
been  looked  upon  with  distrust.  "Consider  what 
the  effect  of  placing  a  student  in  a  trailer  section  in 
any  course  would  be  upon  that  student,"  say  the 
educators.  "What  incentive  can  there  be  for  a  boy 
or  girl  so  placed?  "  And  here  again  the  domination 
of  the  average  and  of  the  weakling  over  the  robust 
and  the  exceptional  is  all  too  evident.  "We  are 
wasting  time  in  our  educational  system"  is  an 
indictment  which  has  rung  forth  in  every  educa- 
tional meeting  during  the  past  decade.  "We  are 
losing  from  between  two  to  three  years,"  declare 
state  superintendents  and  college  and  university 
presidents.  Yet  what  are  we  doing  to  remedy  the 
situation? 

Probably  the  most  popular  remedy  at  the  present 
time  in  the  higher  institutions  of  learning  is  the  so- 
called  "junior  college,"  just  as  a  few  years  ago  the 
popular  remedy  was  the  so-called  "junior  high 
school."  These  both  are  partial  attempts  at  depart- 
mentalization and  delineation  in  a  small  section  of 
the  system.  At  best  both  are  but  temporary  make- 
shifts which  can  produce  no  lasting  beneficial  results. 
They  may  placate  and  palliate  for  the  moment,  but 
they  will  not  substantially  alleviate. 

Nothing  short  of  complete  delineation  and  com- 


154    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

prehensive  departmentalization  will  solve  the  prob- 
lem. And  the  soundest  method  of  solution,  we  be- 
lieve, is  through  a  municipal  foundation  for  the 
study  and  advancement  of  community  education. 

We  are  convinced  that  the  first  steps  toward  the 
correction  of  our  system  would  be  for  a  group  of 
influential  men  in  a  given  community  to  organize 
for  the  purpose  of  forming  such  a  foundation,  to  en- 
dow it  with  adequate  funds  with  which  to  carry  on 
its  work,  to  choose  a  leader  quite  regardless  of  polit- 
ical affiliation,  and  to  give  him  the  utmost  freedom 
to  carry  on  his  investigation,  stipulating  only  that 
the  members  of  the  foundation  be  furnished  from 
time  to  time  with  adequate  reports  of  the  prog- 
ress made.  Then  that  the  foundation  as  an  early 
duty  determine  upon  the  boundaries  of  the  given 
university  unit  and  begin  the  collection  of  statistics 
covering  all  those  resident  within  its  confines  and 
at  the  same  time,  for  purposes  of  analysis,  that  it 
partition  this  given  unit  into  a  number  of  smaller 
units  and  that  it  ultimately  correlate  the  results  of 
its  findings  in  these  smaller  units  for  the  larger  uni- 
versity units.  In  this  way  it  could  arrive  at  the  de- 
mands of  the  unit  and  then  it  could  attempt  a 
realignment  of  the  educational  system  for  that  unit, 
in  order  that  an  adequate  supply  might  be  furnished 
to  meet  the  demands  of  the  community. 

Simultaneously  with  this  analysis  should  come  an 


CONCLUSION  155 

analysis  of  the  requisites  for  any  given  educational 
ultimate  obtained  through  a  careful  canvass  of,  let 
us  say,  five  hundred  practitioners  in  each  vocation. 
These  requisites,  when  ascertained,  should  be 
drafted  into  the  educational  system  in  such  a  way 
as  to  delineate  courses  for  all  given  vocations  for 
which  a  demand  exists.  In  addition  to  these  requi- 
sites, other  beneficial  subjects  should  be  grouped  as 
electives  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  advantageously  pur- 
sued in  conjunction  with  the  required  courses. 

That  further  than  this  the  foundation  should  at- 
tempt, through  its  bureau  of  analysis  and  its  bureau 
of  statistics,  to  furnish  information  whereby  all  in- 
stitutions engaged  in  education  within  the  given 
unit  might  correlate  their  courses  and  unite  in  their 
endeavors  to  eliminate  loss,  to  further  the  institu- 
tions and  facilitate  the  emergence  of  all  children 
applying  for  education.  In  addition,  as  the  founda- 
tion increasingly  proved  its  worth,  this  realignment 
should  take  the  form  suggested,  namely,  that  de- 
partments should  be  made  continuous  throughout 
the  whole  plan  from  the  lowest  point  in  the  primary 
school  to  the  highest  point  in  the  graduate  school. 
That  above  these  departments  there  should  be 
organized  a  central  board  of  departments  consist- 
ing of  representatives  from  each  segment  of  each 
department;  that  this  central  board  should  look  for 
the  information  to  direct  the  educational  policy  of 


156    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

the  university  unit  to  the  municipal  foundation. 
That  above  the  municipal  foundation  and  quite 
independent  of  it  should  be  organized  a  supreme 
court  of  education  for  the  purpose  of  dealing  with 
any  dijQQculties  that  might  arise  in  the  board  of 
departments  and  in  the  departments  themselves. 
Each  segment  —  which  would  correspond  to  our 
present  primary,  secondary,  undergraduate,  and 
post-graduate  schools  —  should  be  granted  reason- 
able autonomy  through  the  central  board,  and  this 
autonomic,  democratic,  and  representative  govern- 
ment should  extend  to  the  foundation  and  to  the 
supreme  court.  In  short,  that  in  the  matter  of  con- 
trol the  broadest  tested  principles  of  democracy 
should  be  applied. 

It  would  be  scarcely  possible  to  place  any  limita- 
tion upon  the  activities  of  a  municipal  foundation 
since  that  organization  would  have  for  its  purpose 
and  sole  aim  the  furthering  of  the  interests  of  the 
entire  community  and  the  substantial  increasing  of 
the  sum  total  of  human  happiness  within  the  given 
university  unit.  The  bureau  of  supply,  which  would 
form  the  third  department  of  such  a  foundation, 
would,  in  the  end,  demonstrate  the  right  of  the 
foundation  to  power.  If  properly  administered,  it 
would  prove  most  valuable  and  would  furnish,  by 
its  statistics,  properly  trained  individuals  for  any 
position  within  the  given  area.   The  bureau  would 


CONCLUSION  157 

be  able  to  furnish  any  organization  requiring  knowl- 
edge, complete  statistics,  at  any  time,  covering  the 
unit.  Such  a  census,  kept  up  to  the  minute,  would, 
in  itself,  be  a  tremendous  factor  in  furthering  the 
interests  of  the  community  and  of  the  Nation. 

The  machinery  required  to  operate  such  a  system 
would  be  neither  complex  nor  expensive.  Even  were 
this  not  the  case,  the  results  possible  to  be  obtained 
from  such  a  bureau  as  the  bureau  of  statistics  would 
alone  be  of  such  a  character  as  to  return  to  the  com- 
munity interest  many  fold  on  either  the  initial  in- 
vestment or  the  funds  required  for  maintenance.  In 
fact,  it  is  quite  conceivable  that  the  saving  in  waste 
alone  —  that  which  now  exists  in  any  given  com- 
munity or  university  unit  —  would  be  sujBBcient  to 
maintain  the  machinery  of  the  foundation  for  a  con- 
siderable period  of  time.  The  possibilities  of  the 
whole  unit  plan  and  the  foundation  plan,  solely  as 
economic  measures,  seem  boundless.  The  effects 
upon  the  institutions  which  would  foster  such  foun- 
dations can  likewise  scarcely  be  estimated.  We  be- 
lieve that  ultimately  the  institutions  would  come  to 
hold  the  most  important  positions  in  the  community 
and  that  the  populace  of  the  entire  university  unit 
would  turn  to  the  foundation  not  only  as  a  source  of 
information  and  guidance,  but  also  as  the  active 
agent,  increasing  their  own  individual  welfares. 

The  educational  equipment  of  our  university  unit 


158    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

would  no  longer  be  a  thing  detached,  a  thing  dealing 
with  but  a  small  part  of  the  population.  It  would 
hold  within  itself  the  future  of  the  populace  both 
collectively  and  individually.  It  would  supply  nor- 
mal demands,  it  would  adjust  diflBculties  arising 
through  sudden  congestions  in  certain  supply.  In 
short,  it  would  apply  the  principles  of  international- 
ism itself  in  a  given  area,  and  if  in  time  the  entire 
country  came  to  be  composed  of  such  units  as  have 
been  suggested,  by  the  fullest  cooperation  between 
these  units,  supply  could  be  transferred  quickly  and 
readily  wherever  sudden  and  abnormal  demands 
existed.  In  times  of  peace  its  results  would  be  these. 
In  times  of  war  the  statistics  which  the  bureaus  of 
the  various  municipal  foundations  could  furnish  the 
Federal  Government  would  be  invaluable  and  would 
render  the  Nation  the  most  efficiently  organized  in 
the  world.  As  a  preparedness  measure  alone,  the 
plan  commends  itself  to  consideration,  and  yet, 
unlike  most  preparedness  measures,  this  would  carry 
no  hampering  of  individuals'  activities. 

To  direct  the  members  of  the  Nation  into  such 
fields  of  activity  as  actually  exist  in  the  demands, 
while  possibly  forcing  more  to  elect  ultimates  which, 
in  our  present  hit-or-miss  plan,  would  not  be  elected, 
is  not  placing  an  injurious  restriction  upon  the  free- 
dom of  the  individual.  Far  better  would  it  be  for 
such  a  one  to  know  that  no  demand  existed  for  his 


CONCLUSION  159 

particular  ultimate  chosen,  at  the  beginning  of  his 
educational  career,  than  to  discover  that  fact  only- 
after  he  had  spent  from  fourteen  to  twenty-five 
years  in  preparing  himself  to  fill  a  mythical  place. 

The  migratory  element  in  our  populace  would  not 
in  the  least  interfere  with  the  application  of  the 
principle.  The  doors  of  each  university  unit  would 
be  open,  but  each  university  unit  would  stand,  far 
more  than  institutions  stand  at  the  present  time,  for 
emphasis  upon  the  certain  particular  fields  of  learn- 
ing determined  by  the  regional  variances  and  the 
bents  of  the  communities.  Warring  factions  in  edu- 
cation would  be  changed  to  cooperative  forces  and 
the  aim  of  all  would  be  seen  to  be  the  same,  standing 
clear  above  individual  difficulties  and  aspirations. 
Education,  were  such  a  plan  put  into  operation, 
would  become  in  truth  an  end  in  itself,  rather  than 
merely  the  means  to  an  end. 

The  University  extension  movement,  which  has 
gained  vogue  in  the  past  few  years,  an  attempt  to 
bring  universities,  through  a  few  of  their  profes- 
sional members,  to  the  doors  of  those  far  removed 
from  seats  of  learning,  can  never  effectively  solve 
the  problem.  Educational  extension,  not  merely 
university  extension  is  what  is  demanded  —  a  prac- 
tical system  that  will  further  the  interests  of  all  and 
in  increasing  proportions  as  the  individuals  remain 
within  it.  Theoretical  lecturers,  sent  out  by  depart- 


160    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

ments  of  university  extension  to  those  dissatisfied 
members  of  society  who  elect  such  courses,  can  never 
substantially  increase  the  sum  total  of  human  hap- 
piness or  greatly  add  even  to  the  capacities  of  indi- 
viduals. University  extension  courses,  like  courses 
within  the  universities  themselves,  are,  despite  the 
youth  of  the  extension  movement,  already  caked 
with  the  crust  of  custom  and  tradition.  Educational 
extension,  not  university  extension,  is  the  solution; 
and  educational  extension  can  be  accomplished  only 
by  striking  out  boldly  into  uncharted  seas. 

We  must  not  content  ourselves  with  any  system 
which  falls  short  of  rendering  the  maximum  amount 
of  service  to  all  who  compose  the  Nation.  Educa- 
tion for  all  must  be  the  foundation  upon  which  the 
sills  of  democracy  rest.  We  must  transcend  petty 
difficulties  and  schemes  propounded  by  theoretical 
exponents,  schemes  which  redound  only  to  their 
own  credit  and  which  further  only  their  own  in- 
terests. 

That  system  of  education  will  alone  be  satisfac- 
tory which  shall  display  the  operations  of  the  sound- 
est principles  of  economy,  and  which  shall  command 
for  each  part  of  the  educational  equipment  the 
utmost  respect  of  all.  That  system  alone  will  func- 
tion to  the  fullest  which  shall  take  cognizance  of  the 
needs  of  every  member  of  society  and  which  shall 
place  at  the  disposal  of  the  populace  all  the  inf  orma- 


CONCLUSION  161 

tion  which  can  be  utilized  in  furthering  the  interests 
of  each  and  every  individual  member. 

We  believe  that  the  course  which  America  in 
company  with  other  nations  must  pursue  lies  some- 
where in  the  direction  which  we  have  endeavored 
to  indicate.  We  believe  that  immeasurable  service 
and  that  freedom  which  is  the  inalienable  right  of 
man  surely  lies  at  the  end  of  such  a  journey.  The 
voyage  may  be  long,  it  is  true,  the  tides  high,  and 
the  storms  heavy,  but  the  port  is  "well  worth  the 
cruise."  Courage  alone  is  required  —  the  courage 
that  defies  convention  and  tradition,  the  courage 
that  is  born  of  faith  that  must  ever  firm  the  naviga- 
tor who  pushes  out  into  strange  new  waters  and 
makes 

THE  BEGINNING. 


SUPPLEMENT 


These  are  some  hints  towards  what  is  in  all  education  a  chief  necessity, 
the  right  government,  or,  shall  I  not  say,  the  right  obedience  to  the 
powers  of  the  human  soul.  Itself  is  the  dictator;  the  mind  itself  the 
awful  oracle.  All  our  powers,  all  our  happiness,  consist  in  our  reception 
of  its  hints,  which  ever  become  clearer  and  grander  as  they  are  obeyed. 

Ralph  Waldo  Emerson 


CHAPTER    XIV 

THE   PITTSBURGH   COMMUNITY 

As  suggested  earlier  in  this  volume,  the  purpose  of 
its  authors  is  not  primarily  to  suggest  means  by 
which  the  American  Nation  may  be  divided  into 
university  units  nor  arbitrarily  to  set  the  boundaries 
of  any  such  divisions.  It  is  rather  to  state  the  eco- 
nomic principles  which,  we  believe,  could  be  applied 
to  all  communities  with  equal  beneficial  results,  and, 
without  professing  accuracy  to  any  marked  degree, 

—  since  it  should  be  clear  to  all  by  now  that  accu- 
racy, without  accurate  statistics,  is  impossible,  and 
accurate  statistics,  we  have  shown,  are  not  available, 

—  to  sketch,  roughly  and  in  broad  outline,  a  plan 
for  the  reconstruction  and  realignment  of  the  whole 
educational  system  and  to  make,  so  far  as  is  possible, 
an  application  to  the  particular  community  in  which 
this  study  had  its  inception. 

Pittsburgh,  because  of  the  development  of  its  in- 
dustries and  its  disorderly  growth  during  the  past 
quarter  of  a  century,  perhaps  furnishes  us  with  as 
good  an  example  as  we  could  desire. 

It  has  been  said  that  Pittsburgh  is  composed  of  a 
number  of  small  towns,  and  in  a  measure  this  is  true 

—  perhaps  more  true  of  Pittsburgh  than  of  some 


166    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

other  cities  which  have  grown  with  less  rapidity. 
The  Pittsburgh  metropolitan  district  has  been 
roughly  defined  as  that  area  extending  from  the 
center  of  the  city  for  a  radius  of  approximately  ten 
miles.  Within  this  comparatively  small  radius,  we 
find  sixty-three  more  or  less  distinct  communities; 
Aspinwall,  Avalon,  Bellevue,  Ben  Avon,  Braddock, 
Bridgeville,  Carnegie,  Carrick,  Cheswick,  Clairton, 
Coraopolis,  Crafton,  Dormont,  Dravosburg,  Du- 
quesne.  East  McKeesport,  East  Pittsburgh,  Edge- 
wood,  Edgeworth,  Elizabeth,  Emsworth,  Etna,  Fin- 
ley  ville,  Glassport,  Glenfield,  Greentree,  Haysville, 
Heidelberg,  Homestead,  Ingram,  Knoxville,  Leets- 
dale,  McKees  Rocks,  Millvale,  Mount  Oliver,  Mun- 
hall,  North  Braddock,  Oakdale,  Oakmont,  Osborne, 
Pitcairn,  Port  Vue,  Rankin,  St.  Clair,  Sewickley, 
Sharpsburg,  Spring  Garden,  Springdale,  Swissvale, 
Tarentum,  Thornburg,  Turtle  Creek,  Verona,  Ver- 
sailles, Wall,  Warrendale,  West  Elizabeth,  West 
Homestead,Westview,  Wexford,  Whitaker,  Wilkins- 
burg,  and  Wilmerding,  not  to  mention  Allegheny 
now  incorporate  as  a  part  of  Greater  Pittsburgh, 
and  generally  known  as  the  "  North  Side." 

Bordering  this  twenty-mile  circle  we  find  a  score 
of  other  communities  differing  little  in  bents  and 
exhibiting  few  regional  variances  from  those  in- 
cluded within  the  circle;  Woodlawn,  Ambridge, 
Aliquippa,  Monessen,  Donora,  Beaver  Falls,  Roch- 


THE  PITTSBURGH  COMMUNITY       167 

ester,  New  Brighton,  New  Kensington,  and  many 
others,  all  because  of  the  similarity  of  their  bents 
and  their  demands  may  be  roughly  termed  the 
* '  Pittsburgh  Community . ' ' 

Were  the  unit  plan  put  into  operation,  our  uni- 
versity unit  which  would  center  in  the  Pittsburgh 
community  would  extend  over  a  much  larger  area. 
It  is  conceivable  that,  owing  to  the  nature  and  char- 
acter of  the  district,  the  Pittsburgh  university  unit 
would  include  that  portion  of  the  country  lying  be- 
tween latitudes  41°  25'  and  39°  25'  north  and  be- 
tween longitudes  75°  25'  and  83°  east;  that  is, 
roughly,  extending  from  approximately  the  northern 
boundary  of  Clearfield  County,  Pennsylvania,  to  the 
southern  boundary  of  Preston  County..  West  Vir- 
ginia, and  from  the  northern  boundary  of  Crawford 
County,  Ohio,  to  the  southern  boundary  of  Ross; 
from  the  Alleghany  Mountains  on  the  east  nearly 
to  Columbus  on  the  west  and  as  far  south  as  Park- 
ersburg.  West  Virginia.  The  parts  of  this  district 
present  such  strikingly  similar  characteristics  that, 
in  the  gross,  we  may  say  that  the  bent  of  the  whole 
area  is  the  same. 

Hereafter,  then,  when  the  Pittsburgh  community 
is  mentioned,  it  must  be  remembered  that  not 
merely  metropolitan  Pittsburgh  is  designated,  but 
rather  all  that  territory  lying  within  the  suggested 
boundaries  of  the  proposed  Pittsburgh  university 


168    A  NEW  BASIS   FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

unit.  By  metropolitan  Pittsburgh  is  meant  that 
district  previously  designated  as  lying  within  a  ten- 
mile  radius  of  the  city  itself.  Whenever  the  city  of 
Pittsburgh  alone  is  named,  the  term  applies  only  to 
the  area  bounded  by  the  present  city  limits.  These 
distinctions  should  be  constantly  kept  in  mind, 
since,  in  the  remaining  chapters  of  this  volume,  all 
three  of  these  divisions  are  dealt  with. 

As  we  have  said,  all  parts  of  the  Pittsburgh  com- 
munity, including  as  it  does  portions  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio,  Maryland,  and  West  Virginia,  possess 
to  a  large  degree  the  same  outstanding  physical 
characteristic.  The  natural  resources  underlying 
most  of  its  region  being  the  same,  the  character  of 
the  industries,  largely  dependent  upon  these  natural 
resources  is,  in  the  gross,  uniform.  The  whole  com- 
munity, therefore,  by  virtue  of  its  regional  bent,  pre- 
sents certain  large  special  demands  to  the  educa- 
tional system  for  supply. 

Accurate  statistics  covering  the  population  of  the 
Pittsburgh  community  are  unfortunately  not  avail- 
able. Those  furnished  by  the  last  Government  census 
are  seven  years  old  and  are,  therefore,  of  little  value. 
It  is  probable  that  the  population  of  this  area  num- 
bers at  present  between  five  and  seven  million  souls. 
In  locating  our  boundaries,  as  suggested,  this  fact 
has  received  consideration.  We  believe  that  this 
body  populace  would  not  be  too  large  a  one  to  form 


THE  PITTSBURGH  COMMUNITY       169 

our  first  university  unit  and  that  the  compilation  of 
statistics  covering  seven  millions  of  people  would 
not  tax  beyond  its  capacity  or  point  of  maximum 
efficiency  the  administrative  equipment  of  a  munici- 
pal foundation. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  chief  industries  in  this  area 
are  the  steel  and  iron  trades.  Associated  with  these 
industries,  because  of  similarity  of  materials,  are 
the  tin  plate,  the  fire  brick,  the  air  brake,  the  win- 
dow glass,  plate  glass,  electric  machinery,  table 
ware,  aluminum,  white  lead,  and  radium  industries. 
Next  in  importance  possibly  to  the  steel  and  iron  are 
the  associated  industries  of  coal,  coke,  oil,  and  gas 
and  numerous  special  industries  in  smaller  numbers 
which  have  sprung  up  because  of  these  resources  of 
the  region.  The  latest  statistics  available,  those  of 
1909,  furnished  by  the  local  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
list  these  various  small  industries  at  211.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  there  were  in  that  year  S91  bakeries, 
248  tobacco  manufacturers,  19  slaughtering  and 
meat-packing  houses,  324  printing  and  publishing 
establishments,  24  paint  and  varnish  concerns,  20 
manufacturers  of  confectionery,  42  steam  laundries, 
7  awning,  tent,  and  sail  manufacturing  plants,  5 
rattan  and  willowware  manufactories,  15  brass  and 
bronze,  41  brick  and  tile,  40  carriage  and  wagon,  3 
engraving,  7  flavoring  extracts,  15  flour-mill  and 
grist-mill    products,  16  food  preparations,   6  fur 


170    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

goods,  11  furniture  and  refrigerator,  3  galvanizing, 
31  ice,  6  jewelry,  12  leather  goods,  6  leather,  tanning, 
currying,  and  finishing,  8  distilled  liquors,  28  malt 
liquors,  86  lumber  and  timber  products,  36  marble 
and  stone,  3  millinery  and  lace,  53  mineral  and  soda 
waters,  13  models  and  patterns,  39  druggists'  prep- 
arations, 6  photo-engraving,  8  fire-clay  products,  8 
shipbuilding  and  boatbuilding,  11  soap,  11  statuary 
and  art  goods,  9  surgical  appliances  and  artificial 
limbs,  5  wall  plaster  manufactories,  and  in  addition 
numerous  pickling  and  preserving  plants,  one  of 
which,  the  largest  of  its  kind  in  the  world,  furnishes 
employment  for  approximately  four  thousand  peo- 
ple. These  few  obsolete  statistics  culled  from  the 
mass  indicate  the  gross  industrial  characteristics  of 
metropolitan  Pittsburgh. 

To  supply  the  demands  of  these  industries  and 
the  unmentioned  others,  Pittsburgh  proper  has, 
according  to  the  latest  statistics  available,  56  pri- 
mary parochial  schools,  125  primary  public  schools, 
1  parochial  secondary  school,  2  industrial  schools,  12 
private  schools,  11  commercial  schools,  3  theological 
seminaries,  1  college,  1  technical  school,  and  2  uni- 
versities, a  total  of  219  more  or  less  distinct  pieces 
of  machinery  forming  the  educational  equipment 
of  the  district.  i 

The  absolute  accuracy  of  these  figures  cannot  be 
vouched  for.   Repeated  attempts  at  authentication 


THE  PITTSBURGH  COMMUNITY      171 

failed  to  reveal  any  one  place  in  the  city  of  Pitts- 
burgh or  any  one  organization  possessing  full  data 
concerning  the  number  of  schools  and  the  character 
of  the  same.  The  local  board  of  education  did,  of 
course,  promptly  furnish  figures  covering  the  schools 
immediately  under  its  jurisdiction,  and  stated  fur- 
ther than  this  that,  since  it  had  no  jurisdiction  over 
other  schools,  it  had  no  knowledge  of  the  kind  or 
number  of  those  in  existence.  No  better  example  of 
the  lack  of  coordination  and  cooperation  could  be 
desired.  Nor  is  this  any  more  true  in  the  case  of 
Pittsburgh  than  in  the  case  of  other  cities.  Boards 
of  education  know  nothing  about  that  educational 
equipment  over  which  they  exercise  no  authority, 
and  appear  to  care  even  less.  As  a  result  duplica- 
tion and  consequent  waste  through  ignorance  in- 
evitably follow. 

Impossible  as  it  was  to  secure  accurate  statistics 
concerning  the  educational  equipment  of  the  city  of 
Pittsburgh  alone,  even  more  impossible  was  it  to 
gather  statistics  covering  the  educational  equip- 
ment now  existing  within  the  roughly  defined  bound- 
aries of  our  proposed  university  unit,  the  Pitts- 
burgh community. 

Such  wholesale  lack  of  accurate  knowledge  can 
only  indicate  that  the  educational  business  is  con- 
ducted without  any  general  stock-taking  and  with- 
out any  reckoning  of  either  assets  or  liabilities.  It  is 


172    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

scarcely  possible  to  imagine  a  business  organization 
operating  in  this  way.  If  an  enterprise  undertook 
to  do  so,  however,  it  would  in  all  probability  operate 
with  no  more  success  and  with  no  greater  economy 
than  does  our  present  educational  business.  In  short, 
the  educational  system  in  our  municipalities,  of 
which  that  operating  in  Pittsburgh  is  a  fair  example, 
is  a  disorganized,  uncorrelated  jumble,  all  variety 
and  no  unity,  and  as  unlovely  when  contemplated 
in  this  light  as  it  is  inefficient. 

However,  let  us  return  once  more  to  the  gross 
physical  characteristics  of  our  Pittsburgh  commu- 
nity, in  order  that  we  may  ask,  quite  apart  from  any 
question  of  organization,  how  has  the  educational 
system  reckoned  with  these?  The  answer  is  not 
difficult  to  find.  The  curricula  of  the  Pittsburgh 
public  schools  show  few  variances,  in  fact,  none  of 
importance  from  those  operating  in  the  public 
schools  of  other  communities  not  possessing  an 
industrial  bent.  Nor  does  further  search  reveal  any 
organized  endeavor  to  shape  by  special  emphasis 
the  output  of  the  schools  definitely  to  qualify  for 
specialized  early  vocational  service.  The  truth  is 
forced  that  while  the  bent  of  the  Pittsburgh  com- 
munity has  been  rapidly  developing,  the  educational 
system  has  virtually  remained  stationary. 

But,  argue  the  protagonists  of  the  present  system, 
the  bents  of  communities  are  constantly  changing. 


THE  PITTSBURGH  COMMUNITY       173 

Consider  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  and  more  to  the  imme- 
diate point,  Detroit.  Surely  no  educational  system 
can  properly  function  if  it  be  continually  changing 
to  keep  pace  with  the  flux  and  flow  of  industries.  If 
we  admitted  the  soundness  of  this  reasoning,  which 
as  the  preceding  chapters  in  this  volume  attest  we 
by  no  means  do,  there  would  still  remain  this  much 
to  be  said  in  way  of  direct  rebuttal.  Granted  that 
communities  do  change  in  bent.  The  exhaustion  of 
natural  resources  compels  this  in  some  cases.  In 
others,  the  growth  of  new  industries  effects  the  mir- 
acle. This  does  not  vitiate  our  indictment  of  the 
educational  system.  The  system  has  been  impervi- 
ous to  influences  other  than  change.  In  fact,  it  has 
constantly  failed  to  reckon  with  either  growth, 
evolution,  or  existence  of  regional  bent. 

In  recent  years  the  automobile  industries  have 
changed  materially  the  character  of  many  of  our 
Middle  Western  municipalities,  particularly  those 
cities  on  or  near  the  Great  Lakes.  However,  so  far 
as  can  be  ascertained,  no  marked  changes  have  come 
in  the  system  of  education  as  a  result  of  this  indus- 
trial growth.  Gary,  of  course,  is  an  exception  which 
must  be  noted.  But  it  is  questionable  if  the  causes 
for  the  changes  inaugurated  in  the  school  system  of 
Gary  can  be  traced  solely  and  directly  to  the  de- 
mands created  with  the  establishment  of  the  plants 
of  the  Bethlehem  Steel  Corporation  which  built  the 


174    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

municipality.  Certainly  there  are  certain  grains  of 
truth  in  the  statements  of  those  who  contend  that 
our  primary  and  secondary  systems  of  education 
have  not  substantially  furthered  the  progress  of  our 
communities  by  training  for  specialized  early  voca- 
tion. The  vocational  road  which  must  be  traveled 
by  approximately  ninety  per  cent  of  our  populace 
in  any  municipality  of  size  is  strewn  with  innumer- 
able wrecks,  the  natural  products  of  carelessness 
and  inefficiency  in  a  system  which  takes  little 
thought  of  what  is  its  only  tenable  aim,  namely,  to 
produce  an  adequately  equipped  supply  for  a  defi- 
nitely known  demand. 

Consequently  we  cannot  believe  that  to  reckon 
with  community  bents  by  analyzing  the  individual 
ultimates  represented  in  the  communal  demands, 
to  delineate  courses  which  shall  fit  for  these  ulti- 
rchates,  to  departmentalize  the  educational  system 
that  the  demands  of  the  community  may  be  fully 
supplied,  to  facilitate  expansion  to  meet  new  de- 
mands whenever  such  appear,  and  retraction  when- 
ever the  market  for  certain  supplies  disappears, 
would  be  placing  flexibility  above  sound  economic 
efficiency.  Loss  of  years,  energy,  health,  and  lives 
we  shall  some  day  come  to  realize  can  be  pre- 
vented only  by  reckoning  with  industrial  flux  and 
flow. 

Pittsburgh  may  be  no  worse  off  in  respect  to  its 


THE  PITTSBURGH  COMMUNITY       175 

system  of  education  than  any  other  municipality  of 
equal  size.  Unbiased  scrutiny,  however,  leads  us  to 
believe  that  in  some  respects,  at  least,  especially  in 
correlation  and  cooperation  in  its  educational  work, 
the  Pittsburgh  metropolitan  district,  and  likewise 
the  Pittsburgh  community,  has  fallen  behind  other 
progressive  sections  of  the  country.  The  results 
obtained  by  such  a  survey  as  that  of  education  in 
the  State  of  Vermont,  conducted  by  the  Carnegie 
Foundation,  and  by  the  survey  of  public  schools  in 
the  city  of  Butte,  Montana,  lend  weight  to  this 
belief. 

To  remedy  the  evil  in  our  formal  system  of  educa- 
tion, unions  have  been  formed  among  workmen 
themselves,  to  furnish  the  protection  which  the 
educational  system  has  failed  to  give.  These  unions 
fix  the  years  and  the  hours  of  labor  and  the  char- 
acter of  the  work  which  shall  educate  the  individual 
from  his  entrance  as  a  novice  to  the  time  when  he 
shall  become  a  skilled  journeyman  in  his  trade.  In 
other  words,  and  especially  is  this  true  in  the  Pitts- 
burgh community,  to  supply  the  many  demands  of 
the  industries,  there  has  come  into  being,  because 
of  the  failure  of  the  formal  educational  system,  an 
accessory  educational  system  which  takes  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  compulsory  governmental  institutions 
and  forces  upon  them  an  additional  period  of  instruc- 
tion and  guidance  that  they  may  be  fitted  properly 


176     A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

to  perform  their  tasks.  This  education  is  carried  on 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  practitioners  within  the 
industries  themselves.  From  this  accessory,  indus- 
trial, educational  system  some  are  drafted  back  into 
the  academic  system,  and  at  various  points  in  the 
latter,  individuals  are  drafted  out  again  into  the 
industries,  but  here  again  little  cooperation  is  in 
evidence.  The  cooperative  plan  operating  at  present 
in  the  University  of  Pittsburgh  is,  to  be  sure,  an 
attempt  to  correlate  the  two  systems,  and  since  it  is 
working  in  the  right  direction,  it  may  be  productive 
of  some  good.  But  it  falls  far  short  of  striking  to  the 
roots  of  the  difficulties,  and  it  can  never  wholly 
obtain  all  the  results  desired.  The  industrial  system 
takes  little  thought,  as  a  rule,  of  the  preparation 
which  the  academic  institutions  give,  and  many  of 
the  academic  institutions  regard  with  ill  favor,  if 
they  consider  at  all,  the  system  which  attempts  to 
do  the  work  which  it  should  have  done. 

No  matter  how  far  an  individual  has  proceeded  in 
the  training  furnished  by  the  primary  and  secondary 
schools,  he  enters  the  industrial  world  usually  at  one 
point  and  must  fulfill  the  unionized  requirements 
before  he  can  become  a  journeyman  and  a  recognized 
practitioner.  In  every  community  and  particularly 
in  such  an  industrial  community  as  Pittsburgh,  this 
forms  one  of  the  most  serious  problems  which  the 
formal  educational  system  has  to  face.    If  the  aca- 


THE  PITTSBURGH  COMMUNITY       177 

demic  system  could  send  to  the  industries  men  who 
could  compete  in  an  economic  way  successfully  with 
those  members  of  the  unions  possessing  little  formal 
educational  training,  the  effects  upon  the  unions 
themselves,  to  say  nothing  of  the  effects  upon  indi- 
viduals excreted,  would  be  worth  all  the  effort  and 
the  possible  additional  expenditure  incurred  by  the 
inauguration  of  such  a  system. 

What  is  needed,  of  course,  in  the  Pittsburgh  com- 
munity is  an  application  to  the  educational  system 
of  the  fundamental  principles  of  economics.  As  we 
attempt  to  grope  our  way  through  all  the  maze  of 
difficulties  and  as  we  contemplate  the  waste  of  time, 
of  effort,  and  of  men,  and  the  various  systems  of 
training  such  as  are  exemplified  by  those  operative 
in  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation  and  the 
Westinghouse  plants,  we  come  more  and  more  surely 
with  each  attempt  to  the  belief  that  a  governmental 
educational  system  must,  in  order  to  be  successful, 
take  cognizance  of  the  demands  within  the  indus- 
tries for  workmen  of  various  kinds  and  must  edu- 
cate, in  such  a  way  as  to  supply  these  demands,  the 
children  who  come  to  it  for  instruction.  If  this  were 
done,  slowly  but  surely  as  the  supply  was  provided, 
the  unions  would  become  more  and  more  kindly  dis- 
posed to  the  system  and  would  come  in  time  to 
accept  its  products.  The  realization  would  be  forced 
that  this  output  could  powerfully  strengthen  the 


178    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

unions  themselves  in  their  endeavors  to  make  the 
world  a  happier  place  in  which  to  live. 

In  all  fau*ness,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
exploitation  of  the  products  of  our  schools,  colleges, 
and  universities  by  the  industries,  which  take  the 
form  of  such  special  courses  given  in  manufacturing 
establishments  as  we  have  mentioned,  is  not  a  will- 
ful perversion.  Exploitation  has  been  forced  by  the 
failure  of  the  system.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  beneficial  in  a  small  way  as  these  courses  are, 
the  industries  would  welcome  any  educational  sys- 
tem which  would  make  wholly  unnecessary  such 
specialized  industrial  training  courses  as  are  con- 
ducted by  the  industries  at  the  present  time.  The 
advantages  accruing  to  the  manufacturers  from 
securing  men  adequately  equipped  to  assume  at 
once  a  position  of  responsibility  would,  we  believe, 
far  outweigh  any  small  monetary  saving  that  is 
accomplished,  at  the  present  time,  by  a  system, 
which  constitutes,  as  it  does,  exploitation.  The  criti- 
cism of  these  courses  lies  certainly  not  at  the  doors 
of  the  industries,  but  goes  back,  as  we  have  said 
before,  to  the  formal  system  of  education. 

The  Pittsburgh  community  is  primarily  a  com- 
munity with  a  particular  industrial  bent,  and  the 
Pittsburgh  community  needs  a  system  of  academic 
education  which  will  not  only  render  exploitation 
unnecessary,  but  will    also  actively   apply  sound 


THfi  PITTSBURGH  COMMUNITY       179 

economic  principles.  And  until  this  happens,  this 
community,  in  common  with  other  communities, 
will  continue  to  remain  the  same  disorderly,  wasteful, 
and  unwieldy  monstrosity  which  it  is  at  the  present 
time. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE   DEMANDS   OP  THE   PITTSBURGH 
COMMUNITY 

No  gross  analysis  of  the  demands  of  the  city  of 
Pittsburgh  has  ever  been  made,  much  less  an  analy- 
sis of  the  demands  of  the  Pittsburgh  community. 
The  latest  census  of  manufactures  of  the  metro- 
politan district,  by  specified  industries,  was  tabu- 
lated, as  we  have  said,  in  1912  and  was  taken  in  1909. 
And  even  the  reliability  of  these  figures  published 
by  the  local  Chamber  of  Commerce  may  admit  of 
reasonable  questioning. 

The  Chamber  of  Commerce,  in  its  published  re- 
port, made  no  attempt  to  designate  other  than  de- 
mands in  the  large.  For  example,  102  individuals 
were  listed  as  salaried  employees  in  brass  and  bronze 
establishments,  and  704  individuals  were  listed  as 
wage-earners  in  the  same  concerns;  121  and  833 
respectively  in  confectionery  manufacturing  plants; 
and  so  on  throughout  the  long  list  of  specified  indus- 
tries. Beyond  this  gross  listing  there  has  been,  so 
far  as  we  can  ascertain,  no  analysis  made  of  the 
diversified  demands  which  even  a  manufacturing 
concern  engaged  in  the  production  of  confectionery 
would  present  to  the  educational  system  for  supply. 


PITTSBURGH  COMMUNITY  DEMANDS    181 

The  flux  and  change  of  the  demands  of  the  commu- 
nity have  never  been  reckoned  with,  and  undoubtedly 
these  demands  have  been  modified  each  year  during 
the  period  following  the  taking  of  these  statistics. 
And  the  industries  must  in  many  ways  have  been 
fronted  with  the  necessity  for  training  individuals 
in  new  tasks,  of  the  existence  of  which  no  educa- 
tional system  has  yet  taken  cognizance. 

We  have  already  pointed  out  that  the  Pittsburgh 
community,  because  of  its  bent,  presents  special 
demands  for  men  skilled  in  vocational  work.  How 
large  a  proportion  of  the  population  is  required  to 
supply  these  particular  demands  is  at  present  un- 
known, again  because  of  the  lack  of  statistics.  But 
in  such  a  community  as  this,  this  specialized  de- 
mand must,  perforce,  be  extremely  large;  perhaps 
ninety  per  cent  of  the  total  population  would  be  a 
fair  estimate. 

We  have  further  pointed  out  that  the  special  de- 
mands of  the  Pittsburgh  community  are  deter- 
mined by  the  outstanding  features  of  its  industries. 
To-day  and  for  generations  to  come,  these  features 
of  the  industries  will  undoubtedly  be  those  pre- 
sented because  of  the  contents  of  the  earth  under- 
lying the  community.  Furthermore,  it  is  quite 
within  reason  to  assimie  that  the  bent  of  this  region 
will  remain  practically  the  same  for  many  years,  at 
least  until  change  is  necessitated  by  the  exhaustion 


182    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

of  these  resources  which  have  given  to  the  area  its 
particular  bent. 

All  communities  in  countries  which  have  gained 
civilization  present  certain  demands  to  the  educa- 
tional system  for  supply.  The  number  of  these 
demands  increases  or  diminishes  with  the  influx  and 
outflow  of  population,  but  since  they  never  quite 
disappear  so  long  as  the  community  persists,  they 
may  be  designated  as  "staple."  Every  community 
presents  staple  demands  for  physicians,  bankers, 
merchants,  teachers,  lawyers,  ministers,  etc.,  as  well 
as  for  those  who  fill  the  earlier  vocations.  And  while 
the  movements  of  peoples  exercise  the  major  influ- 
ences upon  these  staples,  regional  variances  also 
have  their  effect.  Even  the  staple  demands  are  for  a 
regionally  educated  product. 

In  addition  to  these  staple  demands  common  to 
all  communities,  there  are  in  the  community  of  Pitts- 
burgh various  other  special  demands  determined 
almost  entirely  by  the  bent  of  the  district.  For 
example,  the  resources  and  industries  of  the  region 
make  especially  large  demands  for  men  trained  in 
chemistry,  physics,  electricity,  and  biology:  for  men 
trained  to  care  for  the  health  and  welfare  of  those 
who  work  in  and  develop  the  industries  as  well  as 
for  those  trained  to  attack  the  various  legal  prob- 
lems which  a  congregation  of  people  with  special 
industrial  interests  presents.   Of  course,  this  is  only 


PITTSBURGH  COMMUNITY  DEMANDS    18S 

a  rough  general  statement,  yet  the  truth  of  it  should 
be  evident  to  any  one  conversant  with  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  Pittsburgh  district. 

It  now  becomes  necessary  for  us  to  select  from 
among  the  late  vocations  those  which  are  most 
pressingly  demanded  by  the  Pittsburgh  community, 
because  of  the  character  of  its  particular  bent,  and 
to  weigh  each,  that  we  may  determine  which  are 
worthy  of  attention  by  the  University,  and  which 
are  important  enough  to  monopolize  that  attention. 
And  here  it  may  be  said,  should  the  classification 
seem  arbitrary,  that  judgment  has  been  formed  only 
after  long  residence  and  more  than  two  years  of 
intensive  study.  Nor  has  the  fact  been  forgotten 
that  the  designation  of  any  one  field  as  more  im- 
portant than  another  ever  offers,  to  those  fond  of 
arguments,  an  attractive  opportunity  for  criticism. 
Be  that  as  it  may,  without  in  the  least  wishing  to 
engage  in  any  discussion  concerning  the  relative 
importance  of  the  various  late  vocations,  we  believe, 
since  the  progress  of  any  community  depends,  in 
the  end,  upon  the  health  and  well-being  of  those 
who  form  it,  that  still  it  can  be  said,  in  all  truth, 
that  one  of  the  first  duties  of  a  university  is  to  fur- 
nish an  education  for  late  vocationalists  interested 
in  the  promotion  of  human  welfare,  and  primarily 
in  the  furtherance  of  public  health. 

In  any  large  community,  and  particularly  in  the 


184    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

community  of  Pittsburgh,  a  school  of  medicine,  of 
the  first  rank,  is  an  essential.  More  than  this,  and  in 
line  with  the  basic  principles  underlying  our  pro- 
posal, we  believe  that  a  school  of  medicine,  to  func- 
tion properly,  must  hold  as  its  ideal  service  for 
human  welfare  in  its  broadest  conception.  This  con- 
ception means  that  our  medical  schools  should  do 
more  than  provide  a  large  number  of  special  practi- 
tioners such  as  we  may  call,  for  the  time  being, 
*'visualizers."  They  should  produce  specialized 
groups —  special  practitioners  in  the  art  of  medicine, 
specialized  surgeons,  specialized  internalists,  special- 
ized laboratory  workers  and  inspectors.  And  further- 
more, and  of  vital  importance,  they  should  modify 
their  characters  in  accordance  with  the  suggestion 
made  by  the  Carnegie  Foundation;  that  is,  each 
school  of  medicine  should  build  its  character  on  the 
peculiar  opportunities  opened  to  it  by  the  nature  of 
the  area  which  suiTounds  it,  or,  in  other  words,  each 
school  should  give  the  proper  amount  of  considera- 
tion to  regional  variances  and  community  bents. 

Tulane  University  of  Louisiana,  by  placing  major 
emphasis  upon  the  study  of  tropical  diseases,  has 
already  embarked  upon  such  a  course,  as  has  the 
Johns  Hopkins  Medical  School  in  focusing  upon  the 
provision  of  teachers  in  medicine.  We  are  just  at 
the  beginning  of  this  movement,  the  growth  and 
development  of  which  we  believe  to  be  inevitable  — 


PITTSBURGH  COMMUNITY  DEMANDS    185 

not  only  inevitable  but  also  desirable.  These  changes 
which  we  are  witnessing  are  in  reality  but  the  appli- 
cation in  this  special,  late-vocational  field  of  those 
principles  which  we  advocate  applying  in  every  field 
of  education.  This  being  the  case,  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  consider  the  peculiar  character  which  the 
regional  variance  and  bent  of  the  Pittsburgh  com- 
munity demand  that  its  medical  equipment,  partic- 
ularly the  Medical  School  of  the  University  of  Pitts- 
burgh, should  assume.  And  here,  to  be  brief,  we 
believe  that  adequate  attention  to  the  bent  of  the 
local  community  can  be  given  by  the  Medical  School 
of  the  University  only  by  focusing  upon  that  portion 
of  the  human-welfare  problem  presented  by  the 
occupational  diseases  attendant  upon  industries. 

We  would  suggest,  therefore,  that  the  Medical 
Department  of  the  University  of  Pittsburgh  accept, 
as  its  community-given  privilege  and  duty,  the  study 
of  occupational  diseases;  and  that,  in  addition  to 
this,  as  an  accessory  feature  of  the  Medical  Depart- 
ment, it  emphasize  development  of  medical  and 
nursing  agents  trained  in  a  social  sense. 

Sickness  in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  term  always 
invades  such  territories  as  are  permeated  by  organi- 
zations for  the  study  of  wage  conditions,  housing 
conditions,  internal  conditions,  and  the  incorpora- 
tion of  the  foreign-born  in  the  populace.  And  as  a 
result  there  has  come  in  modern  times  this  demand 


186    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

for  doctors  and  nurses  possessing  the  social  sense. 
This  demand,  while  of  comparatively  recent  origin, 
has  nevertheless  developed  with  extreme  rapidity. 
As  has  so  often  happened  before  in  emergencies, 
voluntary  agents  have  here  accepted  and  taken  up 
the  task  of  producing  individuals  so  trained.  Be- 
cause of  this,  and  because  our  medical  schools  have 
quite  neglected  the  field,  the  mass  of  such  agents 
thus  produced  has  been  woefully  lacking  in  the 
knowledge  requisite  for  the  satisfactory  handling  of 
public-health  problems.  Quite  fittingly,  therefore, 
the  School  of  Medicine  in  the  University  of  Pitts- 
burgh, in  addition  to  producing  various  practitioners 
and  research  workers  in  the  general  field,  might,  in 
order  to  render  the  maximum  service  to  the  com- 
munity, add  the  training  that  would  inculcate  in  the 
minds  of  its  students  knowledge  of  the  great  social 
problems  with  which  they,  as  practitioners,  will  be 
required  to  deal. 

Most  certainly,  above  all  else,  the  health  and 
welfare  of  a  community  should  be  provided  for,  and 
adequate  provision  can  be  made  only  by  placing  the 
proper  amount  of  emphasis  upon  the  proper  kind  of 
medical  and  nursing  instruction.  To  summarize, 
then,  the  demands  of  the  Pittsburgh  community  in 
the  field  of  medicine  are  for  a  university  medical 
school  with  a  definite  bent;  namely,  for  one  which 
shall  devote  the  larger  part  of  its  attention  to  the 


PITTSBURGH  COMMUNITY  DEMANDS    187 

study,  prevention,  and  relief  of  occupational  dis- 
eases, and  at  the  same  time  for  one  which  shall,  in 
addition  to  giving  its  graduates  special  training  in 
these  diseases,  give  them  such  instruction  as  will 
produce  that  social  sense  without  which  their  work 
can  count  little  for  community  progress. 

Human  welfare  and  public  health,  however,  are 
not  alone  promoted  by  our  departments  of  medicine. 
Associated  with  the  contribution  which  these  de- 
partments may  make,  there  is  always  the  contribu- 
tion which  must  be  made  by  departments  of  law. 
Exactly  the  same  analysis  applies  in  law  as  has  been 
applied  in  medicine.  The  production  of  those  prop- 
erly trained  in  jurisprudence  is  of  extreme  impor- 
tance in  a  community  with  special  industrial  fea- 
tures. 

The  community  of  Pittsburgh  requires  as  a  mat- 
ter of  course  numbers  of  general  legal  practitioners. 
But  in  addition  to  this  and  more  to  the  point,  it  re- 
quires lawyers  of  peculiar  instruction  for  every  field 
of  special  work  created  by  the  special  bent  of  the 
community.  It  has  a  need  for  lawyers  with  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  problems  associated  with  the  rights  of 
industries  to  the  contents  of  the  earth  underlying 
the  community.  It  requires  practitioners  instructed 
in  the  affording  of  protection  to  the  inventions 
which  are  constantly  born  in  an  industrial  commu- 
nity. It  requires  those  trained  by  special  instruction 


188    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

in  patent  law.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  demands 
which  the  Pittsburgh  community  makes  upon  the 
legal  field  are  almost  as  diversified  as  those  which  it 
makes  in  the  medical.  And  furthermore,  even  in 
such  a  special  province  as  that  of  patent  law, 
it  demands  those  who  understand  the  problems 
presented  by  new  discoveries  made  by  research  in 
chemistry,  physics,  electricity,  and  biology. 

Possibly  of  equal  importance  with  the  demands 
which  the  Pittsburgh  community  makes  for  men 
trained  in  that  phase  of  law  which  concerns  itself 
with  scientific  research  and  its  products  are  the  de- 
mands which  it  makes  for  those  trained  in  other 
phases  of  legal  education  which  have  to  do  with 
wages,  with  the  relations  of  organized  labor  to  the 
industries,  the  relations  of  imported  foreign  popu- 
laces to  their  home  country  and  to  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment, with  the  peculiar  problems  of  living  pre- 
sented by  the  incorporation  of  the  foreign-born, 
with  the  protection  of  all  immigrants  from  mal- 
practitioners  who  make  capital  out  of  the  new- 
comer's lack  of  knowledge  of  conditions  into  which 
he  has  been  imported.  These  and  many  more  form 
a  host  of  special  problems,  each  of  which  presents  its 
demands  to  a  legal  research  division  in  the  organ- 
ized department  of  law.  Up  to  the  present  time  no 
adequate  equipment  has  been  provided  in  Pitts- 
burgh to  furnish  a  supply  for  such  demands.  The 


PITTSBURGH  COMMUNITY  DEMANDS    189 

School  of  Law  in  the  University  which  now  attempts 
to  do  this  is  little  more  than  a  low-rate  institution. 
Yet  surely  the  provision  of  a  supply  of  legally 
trained  specialists  is  a  task  worthy  of  the  attention 
of  the  University. 

In  addition  to  these  special  demands  for  men 
trained  in  medicine  and  law,  the  Pittsburgh  com- 
munity presents  still  others  of  supreme  importance. 
These  demands  come  largely  from  the  industries 
and  are  for  higher  vocationalists  trained  in  those 
sciences  upon  which  the  progress  of  the  industries 
themselves  depends.  The  bent  of  the  Pittsburgh 
community  forces  these  demands  for  those  possess- 
ing knowledge  first  of  chemistry,  then  of  physics, 
then  of  electricity,  and  of  biology.  And  basing  these 
requirements  in  the  sciences  there  is  the  ever-increas- 
ing demand  for  research  and  for  research  workers  in 
the  scientific  and  industrial  fields.  In  fact,  so  pro- 
nounced is  the  bent  of  the  region  that  these  demands 
may  be  fittingly  termed  "Pittsburgh  staples." 

Here  we  come  at  once  to  that  great  opportunity 
which  peculiarly  belongs  to  the  University.  The 
establishment  of  the  Mellon  Institute  and  School  of 
Specific  Industries  marked  a  long  step  in  progress  in 
this  direction.  As  a  result,  what  is  needed  now  is 
not  so  much  physical  equipment  as  the  spirit  of  re- 
search —  that  spirit  which  should  permeate  any 
institution  founded  with  research  for  its  primary 


190    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

purpose,  that  spirit  which  should  insist  that  such 
an  institution  project  the  highest  ideals  in  chemistry 
and  yet  be  not  prodigal  of  its  own  rights  and  re- 
sources. This  spirit,  were  it  fostered  in  the  Pitts- 
burgh community  equipped  as  it  is  with  the  Mellon 
Institute,  would  insist  that  there  should  be  made 
from  the  industries  a  return  to  the  institution  of 
funds  to  be  utilized  in  pushing  still  farther  into  un- 
known fields.  And  in  this  respect  it  may  be  said 
that  what  is  applicable  to  chemistry  applies  equally 
in  physics,  in  electricity,  and  in  biology.  Biology 
to-day  is  after  all  but  a  department  of  chemistry, 
and  who  at  the  present  time  is  able  to  place  any 
limitation  upon  its  province?  It  invades  all  depart- 
ments of  human  study. 

The  analysis  which  we  have  suggested,  while  hav- 
ing its  greatest  bearing  upon  the  early  vocationalists 
or  skilled  laboring  vocationalists,  would  have  a  most 
significant  local  application  in  the  chemical  field. 
One  need  only  be  mildly  sensitive  to  industrial  and 
scientific  requirements  to  know  that  the  most  vital 
factor  in  the  future  of  coal  and  oil  and  their  by- 
products, in  iron,  in  steel,  and  in  gas,  lies  within  the 
chemical  room  of  each  industrial  plant.  Industries 
have  been  slow  to  accept  the  innovation,  but  with 
the  increasing  knowledge  of  its  necessity,  the  enthu- 
siasm has  now  become  so  pronounced  that  the  de- 
mand for  chemists  has  enormously  increased.   The 


PITTSBURGH  COMMUNITY  DEMANDS    191 

industries  are  recognizing  that  analysis  of  deficien- 
cies, synthesis  for  better  products,  and  experimenta- 
tion are  most  necessary  to  sustain  industrial  life. 

An  examination  of  the  chemical  literature  reveals 
how  sound  this  judgment  of  the  industries  is.  To- 
day we  approach  life  through  general  and  physical 
chemistry,  radioactivity,  electrochemistry,  inorga- 
nic chemistry,  analytical,  chemistry  mineralogical 
and  geological  chemistry,  metallurgy  and  metal- 
lography, organic  chemistry,  biological  chemistry, 
foods,  water,  sewage  and  sanitation,  soils  and  fertil- 
izers, fermented  and  distilled  liquors,  pharmaceuti- 
cal chemistry,  acids,  alkalies,  salts  and  sundries, 
glass  and  ceramics,  cement  and  other  building  ma- 
terials, fuels,  gas,  tar  and  coke,  petroleum,  asphalt 
and  wood  products,  cellulose  and  paper,  explosives 
and  explosions,  dyes  and  textile  chemistry,  paints, 
varnishes  and  resins,  fats,  fatty  oils  and  soaps,  sugar, 
starch  and  gums,  rubber  and  allied  substances.  It 
will  be  noted  that  over  fifty  per  cent  of  these  sub- 
jects for  chemical  research  are  necessary  in  the 
sustaining  of  industrial  life. 

The  community  which  is  not  alive,  through  both 
its  academic  and  industrial  branches  of  its  educa- 
tional system,  to  the  demands  that  are  yearly  being 
created  by  research,  cannot  hope  to  compete  with 
other  communities  of  like  size.  From  every  angle  by 
which  we  have  approached  the  local  educational 


192    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS    . 

system  we  have  come  ultimately  to  this  conclusion, 
that  Pittsburgh  has  failed  to  father  the  research  that 
must  precede  progress.  Its  industries  have  pro- 
gressed, it  is  true,  but  the  expert  chemists  who  have 
contributed  to  this  progress  have  been,  in  large  part, 
imported  into  the  Pittsburgh  community. 

For  men  trained  in  medicine,  in  law,  and  in  chem- 
istry, then,  the  Pittsburgh  community  makes  its 
most  urgent  demands.  In  the  provision  of  a  supply 
to  meet  such  demands  reside  the  greatest  opportu- 
nities for  the  University. 

That  we  have  not  made  special  mention  of  either 
mining,  dentistry,  or  the  domestic  vocations  may 
seem  an  unpardonable  oversight.  The  reason  for 
this  omission,  however,  is  that  we  believe  the  sup- 
plying of  demands  in  these  vocations  to  be  of  second- 
ary importance;  the  task  relegated  to  that  position 
by  the  bent  of  the  community  and  by  the  equipment 
which  already  exists  in  the  district  for  the  produc- 
tion of  the  supply.  The  demands  in  mining,  for  in- 
stance, are  well  cared  for  by  the  Carnegie  Institute 
of  Technology  —  in  fact,  far  better  cared  for  than  the 
University  can  ever  hope  to  provide  for  them,  with 
the  other  greater  problems  demanding  attention. 
The  Carnegie  Institute,  with  its  equipment  and  now 
with  its  neighboring  Federal  Bureau  of  Mines,  can 
be  trusted  to  supply  demands  in  this  particular 
field.  It  would  be  fitting  for  the  University  to  leave 


PITTSBURGH  COMMUNITY  DEMANDS    193 

this  work  solely  to  these  institutions.  Dentistry 
may  be  looked  upon  as  a  department  necessarily 
incorporated  with  a  department  of  public  welfare 
and  included  with  the  departments  of  medicine, 
nursing,  and  pharmacy.  The  training  of  students  for 
the  various  domestic  vocations  as  for  mining  and 
engineering  should,  we  believe,  be  left  to  the  Car- 
negie Institute  of  Technology  already  far  more 
adequately  equipped  than  the  University  for  this 
work. 

The  furnishing  of  a  supply  to  meet  the  agricul- 
tural demands  of  the  Pittsburgh  community  might 
well  be  the  task  of  such  institutions  of  special  agri- 
cultural bent  as  would  exist  within  the  boundaries 
of  the  proposed  university  unit  were  those  lines 
drawn. 

The  great  demand  for  administrators  which  is 
made  by  the  Pittsburgh  community  and  which  has 
not  been  heretofore  dealt  with  is  entitled  to  special 
consideration.  The  outstanding  obstacle  in  the  way 
of  providing  administrators  is  the  breadth  of  the 
field.  The  administrative  vocational  field  is  as  broad 
as  the  whole  field  of  education  itself.  Special  equip- 
ment for  each  special  administrative  position  has 
become  a  part  of  the  modern  requirements.  Because 
of  this,  we  do  not  feel  competent  to  dictate  even  in 
mildly  dogmatic  terms  what  should  be  done  with 
the  problem,  but  it  seems  plausible  that  the  training 


194    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

of  business  administrators  can  best  be  accomplished 
by  making  a  thorough  canvass  of  the  practitioners 
and  by  allowing  those  most  efficient  in  various  ad- 
ministrative capacities  to  assist  in  the  delineation  of 
courses.  Surely  the  practitioners  of  efficient  business 
administration  are,  like  the  practitioners  in  the  other 
late  vocations,  best  fitted  materially  to  assist  in  such 
a  delineation.  The  determination  of  both  requisites 
and  electives,  here  as  elsewhere,  we  believe,  should 
be  made  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  practitioners. 
Also  it  would  seem  that,  in  the  reconstruction  of 
the  educational  system  of  any  community,  a  special 
department  for  the  presentation  of  subjects  common 
to  all  administrative  work  would  be  a  necessary 
correlative  of  each  department. 

In  many  of  our  large  industries  the  administrators 
have  come  up  from  the  ranks  of  the  technicians  and 
the  early  vocationalists.  Promotion  has  been  mer- 
ited by  the  peculiar  ability  for  administration  and 
leadership  which  the  individuals  have  displayed. 
Those  who  take  modern  courses  of  business  admin- 
istration often  fail  and  are  shifted  into  other  depart- 
ments because  of  their  lack  of  technical  knowledge 
required  to  accomplish  the  task  which  they  have 
undertaken.  Some  there  are  who  even  go  so  far  as 
to  maintain  that  administrators  are  born,  not  made. 
In  part  this  may  be  true.  The  administrative  fac- 
ulty may  be  to  some  extent  inherent,  but  it  must 


PITTSBURGH  COMMUNITY  DEMANDS    195 

also  be  true  that  education  can  be  of  service  in  de- 
veloping and  training  that  faculty.  Indeed,  the 
problem  is  a  complex  one.  And  yet  we  believe  that 
the  day  has  come  to  make  a  beginning  at  a  delinea- 
tion of  courses  by  analysis,  to  cull  information  from 
those  who  are  prominent  in  the  various  administra- 
tive fields,  and  to  build  our  highway,  which  the  feet 
of  those  who  elect  an  administrative  ultimate  must 
follow,  out  of  the  material  which  those  who  have 
passed  before  can  furnish. 

In  the  chapter  dealing  with  delineation  of  courses, 
we  have  already  endeavored  to  show  that  with  this 
proposal  there  is  no  minimizing  of  the  difficulties 
which  would  be  encountered  because  successful  men 
have  not  been  asked  to  think  in  terms  of  educational 
equipment.  But  here  again,  let  it  be  said  that  we 
still  believe  that  were  this  process  begun,  it  would 
not  be  long  until  men  began  to  think  in  such  terms. 
The  practitioner  has  had  little  to  say  concerning  the 
training  of  his  voice,  but  if  given  the  opportunity 
and  urged  to  do  so,  it  is  quite  within  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  he  would  soon  welcome  the  opportunity 
to  raise  that  voice  both  in  defense  and  in  condemna- 
tion of  certain  methods  of  training. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  we  believe  the  oppor- 
tunity presented  to  the  University  of  Pittsburgh  by 
the  demands  of  the  Pittsburgh  community  is,  first, 
to  choose  those  departments  which  are  of  distinctly 


196    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

university  character  and  which  bulk  largest  in  the 
demands,  and  devote  its  attention  to  these;  second, 
in  the  broadest  spirit,  to  allow  for,  and  further,  the 
development  of  those  institutions  of  peculiar  char- 
acter which  fulfill  the  function  and  provide  for  rare 
demands;  and  third,  to  exert  all  its  endeavors  to 
correlate,  to  avoid  duplication,  waste,  and  needless 
competition. 

The  equipment  which  exists  in  the  Pittsburgh 
metropolitan  district  for  the  supplying  of  men 
trained  to  meet  such  special  late-vocational  de- 
mands as  we  have  mentioned  is  far  from  adequate. 
The  Mellon  Institute  in  which  industrial  research  is 
carried  on  was  not  founded  primarily  to  train  chem- 
ists for  broad  fields  of  work,  but  was  instituted 
rather  to  aid  the  industries  to  become  more  eflScient 
by  utilizing  waste  and  perfecting  products  and  by- 
products. The  Department  of  Chemistry  in  the 
University  of  Pittsburgh  has  from  its  inception  been 
struggling  against  many  odds.  The  lack  of  equip- 
ment, the  lack  of  space,  in  many  instances  the  lack 
of  properly  trained  men,  the  latter  lack  the  direct 
result  of  small  salaries,  have  all  operated  against  the 
growth  of  this  department  which  should  be  one  of 
the  most  serviceable  and  powerful  in  the  institu- 
tion. The  departments  of  chemistry  maintained 
by  other  institutions  in  the  district,  regardless  of 
how  well  organized  they  may  be,  exhibit  no  evidence 


PITTSBURGH  COMMUNITY  DEMANDS    197 

that  the  proper  amount  of  emphasis  has  been  placed 
upon  this  branch  of  education. 

What  is  true  in  the  case  of  chemistry  is  equally 
true  in  the  case  of  physics  and  the  biological  sci- 
ences. In  other  words,  nowhere  in  the  Pittsburgh 
metropolitan  district  is  there  a  department  of  chem- 
istry, biology,  or  physics  outstanding  enough  to  be 
known  to  the  members  of  the  community  or  to  a 
wider  circle.  If  we  allow  our  minds  to  travel  to  the 
city  of  Baltimore,  what  we  are  endeavoring  to  pre- 
sent will  at  once  be  clear.  The  moment  Baltimore  is 
mentioned,  the  work  of  Johns  Hopkins  University 
in  the  field  of  medicine  comes  to  mind.  The  de- 
mands of  Pittsburgh  are  of  such  a  character  that 
were  these  demands  adequately  supplied  by  local 
equipment,  the  mention  of  Pittsburgh  would  imme- 
diately suggest  the  opportunities  open  here  for  the 
study  of  chemistry  and  these  other  sciences. 

Pittsburgh  may  mean  to  the  world  steel,  iron, 
coal,  coke,  oil,  and  gas,  but  the  world  recks  not  of 
the  Pittsburgh  educational  equipment.  This  equip- 
ment should,  however,  mean  to  the  world  chemistry, 
physics,  biological  sciences  and  law  in  the  gross.  It 
should  mean  a  community  educational  system  based 
upon  an  analysis  of  the  demands  and  the  individual 
ultimates:  a  departmentalized  educational  system 
by  means  of  which  waste  has  been  eliminated:  a 
benign  circle  working,  through  a  municipal  founda- 


198    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

tion  for  the  study  and  advancement  of  community 
education,  to  the  industries  through  its  bureaus  of 
analysis,  statistics,  and  supply:  a  source  of  informa- 
tion and  therefore  a  source  of  power  to  the  Federal 
Government.  If  this  could  be  accomplished,  in  a 
city  possessing  such  great  potentialities,  the  fame  of 
Pittsburgh's  educational  system  would  be  as  wide- 
spread and  as  merited  as  is  the  fame  of  its  industrial 
accomplishments. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE   OPPORTUNITY   FOR  THE   UNIVERSITY 

In  the  preceding  chapters  of  this  volume  we  have 
attempted  to  indicate  a  simple  plan  for  applying 
the  fundamental  principles  of  economy  to  the  edu- 
cational system.  We  have  endeavored  to  show  that 
such  an  application  would  result  in  a  departmental- 
ization of  the  entire  system,  and  in  a  delineation  of 
courses  running  throughout  it  based  upon  an  analy- 
sis of  ultimates  with  a  due  regard  for  the  laws  of 
supply  and  demand,  and  the  bent  of  the  given  com- 
munity. We  have  suggested  further  that  the  proper 
agents  to  employ  in  such  an  endeavor  would  be 
municipal  foundations  for  the  study  and  advance- 
ment of  community  education.  We  have  raised  the 
questions  as  to  where  the  work  of  such  foundations 
should  begin  and  where  such  institutions  should 
reside,  and  have  briefly  answered  them  with  the 
assertion  that  the  most  fitting,  and  perhaps  the  only 
reasonable,  place  of  residence  for  activities  so  large 
and  so  purposeful  for  service  should  be  in  the  high- 
est, or  what  should  be  the  highest,  educational  insti- 
tutions in  the  communities,  namely,  the  universi- 
ties. We  have  offered  as  a  reason  for  this  assertion 
the  fact  that  it  is  from  these  parts  of  our  educational 


200    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

equipment  that  those  who  have  elected  the  latest 
ultimates  in  the  demands  of  the  community  pass  out 
of  the  formal  educational  system.  For  this  reason,  if 
for  no  other,  our  universities  should  be  the  abiding- 
place  of  those  institutions  engaged  in  that  research 
which  must  precede  all  important  advance  made 
by  the  community  as  a  whole.  Within  these  should 
be  developed  new  alignments,  proved  feasible  by 
research.  From  these  should  radiate  a  spirit  of 
kindness  and  helpfulness  and  information  pointing 
the  way  to  the  soundest  line  of  progressive  evolu- 
tion for  the  race. 

In  the  present  chapter  we  will  endeavor,  so  far  as 
is  possible,  to  sketch  some  of  the  effects  which  the 
application  of  these  principles  of  economics  would 
have  were  this  application  made  to  the  University 
of  Pittsburgh,  and,  at  the  same  time,  consider 
some  of  the  opportunities  which  the  furthering 
of  such  a  plan  would  open  to  that  institution.  It 
is,  of  course,  inconceivable  that  the  University  of 
Pittsburgh  or  any  other  single  university  can  edu- 
cate for  the  world.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  quite 
conceivable  that  the  University  of  Pittsburgh  can 
educate  the  world  by  educating  for  its  own  com- 
munity. 

The  examination  of  the  conditions  in  the  local 
university  made  by  the  survey  organization  revealed 
how  inadequately  is  that  institution  functioning  at 


OPPORTUNITY  FOR  THE  UNIVERSITY    201 

the  present  time.   To  summarize  in  this  regard,  let 
us  begin  with  that  portion  of  equipment  dedicated 
to  the  fitting  of  those  entering  late  vocations.  Here 
the  Graduate  School,  far  more  formidable  in  the 
printed  catalogue  than  in  reality,  is  able  to  keep 
alive  only  with  the  utmost  difficulty.  The  introduc- 
tion into  this  field  of  an  industrial  department  in 
graduate  work  has  so  perplexed  the  cultural  group 
that,  up  to  the  present,  they  have  been  quite  unable 
to  establish  any  sound  working  basis  upon  which  to 
build  a  graduate  entity.  More  than  this,  the  various 
schools  feeding  the  graduate  body  are  so  dissociated 
that  an  individual,  majoring  in  one  subject,  and 
calling  for  advice  and  guidance  in  the  work  which  he 
must  follow,  finds  himself  tossed  back  and  forth 
between  these  uncorrelated  and  competing  groups. 
Proceeding     to    the   next    group    of    so-called 
*' schools"  within  the  University,  Medicine,  Law, 
Dentistry,  and  now  struggling  to  enter,  the  School 
of  Pharmacy,  we  find  the  same  lack  of  coordination. 
The  survey,  in  its  process  of  analysis  here,  made  a 
tabulation  of  the  subjects   taught  within  these 
schools.    This  tabulation  revealed,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, gross  extravagances:  to  wit,  nearly  all  the 
subjects  taught  in  the  primary  years  of  medicine, 
for  example,  are  taught  as  well  in  the  primary  years 
of   dentistry.   Histology,   physiology,   pathology, 
chemistry,  and  others  are  duplicated.  In  pharmacy. 


202    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

we  find  again  duplication  in  therapeutics,  pharma- 
cology, physiology,  and  chemistry.  In  fact,  every- 
where, duplication,  lack  of  coordination  and  extrav- 
agance were  in  evidence:  extravagance  that  could 
find  no  argument  for  its  warrant  save  that  of  ease 
of  administration  as  long  as  the  University  flounders 
under  its  present  form  of  organization. 

By  pressing  still  farther  in  our  analysis  to  those 
schools  which  stand  between  the  semi-graduate  and 
secondary  schools  of  the  local  institutions,  we  arrive 
at  the  conclusion  that  here  attempts  at  departmen- 
talization have  proceeded  farthest.  Here  conditions 
within  the  University  may  be  considered  typical,  in 
the  main,  of  those  which  obtain  elsewhere.  In  the 
University  of  Pittsburgh  we  have  five  so-called 
*'  undergraduate  "  schools  —  the  College,  the  School 
of  Education,  the  School  of  Economics,  the  School 
of  Mines,  and  the  School  of  Chemistry.  These  schools 
are  interdependent,  yet  each,  in  varying  degrees, 
duplicates  the  work  of  others.  Each  is  filled  with 
suspicion  and  fear  lest  another  encroach  in  some  way 
upon  its  own  particular  territory.  The  College  feeds 
all.  For  instance,  in  a  meager  department  of  biology 
this  school  attempts  to  provide  courses  demanded 
by  all  the  remaining  undergraduate  schools  as  well 
as  those  courses  of  special  type  demanded  by  the 
higher  schools,  and  those  leading  through  to  post- 
graduate fields  of  endeavor. 


OPPORTUNITY  FOR  THE  UNIVERSITY    203 

Quite  apart  from  the  effects  which  this  lack  of 
correlation,  with  its  attendant  duplication  and 
wastefulness,  has  upon  the  budget  are  its  effects 
upon  legislation  and  progress.  This  is  an  aspect 
which  cannot  remain  unmentioned.  No  advances 
can  be  made  in  these  undergraduate  schools  without 
proposals  going  through  the  hands  of  a  group  of 
administrators  in  the  school  body,  then  through  a 
group  of  University  administrators,  then  through  a 
board  of  trustees.  Proposals  for  changes  must  follow 
this  course.  Truly  the  legislative  way  is  a  long  and 
devious  one,  but  the  evil  ends  not  here.  It  is  as 
inequitable  as  it  is  cumbersome,  for  the  legislation 
is  at  the  mercy,  first,  of  a  biased,  partisan  group, 
second,  of  a  jealous,  dissociated  group,  and  third, 
of  a  preoccupied,  largely  uninterested  group. 

However,  it  is  not  our  purpose  here  to  indulge 
in  criticisms.  It  is  rather  to  call  attention  to  the 
opportunities  open  to  the  University  of  Pittsburgh, 
Were  departmentalization,  such  as  has  been  sug- 
gested, a  reality  at  the  present  time  rather  than  a 
suggestion,  many  of  the  difficulties  which  have 
arisen  because  of  the  dissociated  organization  of  the 
institution  would  be  non-existent.  Also  with  depart- 
mentalization, that  motley  group  which  to-day  we 
call  "schools,"  each  competing  with  the  other,  dupli- 
cating equipment  and  creating  immeasurable  waste, 
would  be  coordinated  and  the  wastage  and  duplica- 


204    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

tion  prevented.  In  the  graduate  department  alone, 
the  accomplishment  of  departmentalization  and 
reorganization,  regardless  of  the  amount  of  time 
required  to  extend  the  departmentalization  through 
to  the  primary  schools  of  the  city  and  of  the  commu- 
nity, would  bring  advantages  well  worth  all  the  ex- 
penditure of  effort  which  might  be  demanded  in 
the  endeavor. 

By  referring  to  the  chart  at  page  137,  we  shall  see ' 
that  each  subject  of  sufficient  importance  would 
form  a  department  for  the  whole  community  and 
that  this  department  would  have  its  administrative 
head  in  the  highest  educational  field.  Under  such 
a  system  the  student  entering  at  the  bottom  would 
find  his  emergence  facilitated  by  the  autonomy  al- 
lowed within  each  department.  Once  such  a  student 
had  placed  himself  in  the  hands  of  student  guides, 
possibly  under  the  general  direction  of  the  Univer- 
sity Registrar,  his  way  would  be  made  easy,  at  least 
to  the  extent  that  he  would  not  be  forced  to  cope 
with  the  unnecessary  interference  of  the  present 
system.  He  would  become  a  student  of  an  educa- 
tional system  able  to  project  him  into  a  community 
adequately  fitted  to  undertake  his  work  in  life  and 
qualified  to  assume  his  communal  responsibilities. 
Not  only  would  the  difficulties  at  present  arising 
between  the  graduate  and  late-vocational  or  pro- 
fessional schools,  as  they  are  now  called,  fall  away 


OPPORTUNITY  FOR  THE  UNIVERSITY    205 

by  departmentalization,  but  the  extravagance 
caused  by  duplication  here  would  also  disappear. 
In  the  semi-graduate  schools,  if  departmentaliza- 
tion were  a  reality,  this  prodigality  and  duplication 
would  again  be  obviated.  Those  arguments,  born 
of  jealousy  and  suspicion,  which  waste  so  much  of 
the  time  and  thought  of  the  present  administrators 
and  by  so  doing  frustrate  constructive  legislation, 
would  be  abruptly  closed.  The  time  which  is  now 
spent  in  wrangling  over  school  encroachments  and 
school  progress  would  be  devoted  to  furthering  the 
interests  of  the  student  by  clearly  defining  a  course 
for  his  pursuance  from  his  entrance  to  his  gradua- 
tion which  would  fit  him  to  undertake  his  chosen 
task. 

Were  the  municipal  foundation  for  the  study  and 
advancement  of  community  education  a  reality  and 
actually  in  residence  at  the  University  of  Pittsburgh 
its  early  course  in  the  local  field  would  be  clear. 
One  of  its  first  tasks  would  be  to  stop  such  duplica- 
tions as  already  exist  as  a  result  of  the  present  faulty 
system  of  administration.  Such  a  work,  because 
of  the  hold  which  the  establishment  of  so-called 
** schools"  has  obtained,  would  devolve  upon  the 
foundation  as  an  imperative  duty.  The  duplication 
already  discovered  in  the  course  of  this  investiga- 
tion and  the  further  plans  for  duplication  of  depart- 
ments which  are  known  to  be  imminent  are  among 


206    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

the  most  serious  menaces  to  the  development  of  the 
local  University  as  a  whole  and  to  the  development 
of  any  adequate  educational  system  for  the  com- 
munity. And  herein  lies  one  great  opportunity  for 
the  University  to  place  itself  upon  a  sound  basis  of 
business  efficiency  first,  and  by  so  doing  become  in 
its  administrative  departments  a  model  of  business 
administration,  that  it  may  be  able  to  command  the 
respect  of  well-conducted  industrial  organizations. 
No  institution  which  fails  to  apply  the  soundest 
principles  of  organization  can  hope  to  command  the 
respect  or  greatly  further  the  interests  of  a  commu- 
nity which  demands,  among  other  things,  adminis- 
trators trained  in  the  principles  of  scientific  admin- 
istration and  organization.  Slipshod  and  slovenly 
methods  of  administration,  congested  and  disorderly- 
offices,  and  obvious  evidences  of  waste  and  duplica- 
tion may  not  greatly  hinder  the  development  of  a 
training  school  for  clerks,  provided  the  taxpaying 
community  can  be  kept  in  ignorance  of  how  great  are 
the  discrepancies  between  the  theories  taught  and 
the  practices  followed.  But  how  much  more  power- 
ful would  such  a  school  become  were  the  principles 
which  the  student  must,  in  order  to  achieve  success, 
apply  to  that  work  for  which  he  is  being  trained, 
applied  within  the  walls  of  the  school  itself :  that  is 
to  say,  were  the  school  placed  on  a  sound  economic 
and  efficient  administrative  basis.    Surely  if  the 


OPPORTUNITY  FOR  THE  UNIVERSITY    207 

function  of  the  university  is  to  educate,  it  must  lead 
rather  than  follow,  and  it  can  only  lead  by  preaching 
the  best  and  by  following  its  preachments.  It  must, 
in  its  organization,  present  to  the  community  a  model 
to  which  all  members  of  the  community  interested  in 
organization  can  turn  for  suggestion  and  guidance. 
Let  us  now  consider  for  a  moment  the  secondary 
schools  which  feed  these  schools  of  the  University. 
Here  the  largest  excretion  of  our  populace  takes 
place  and  here,  during  the  past  few  years,  the  reor- 
ganizers  have  concerned  themselves  largely  with 
that  proportion  of  the  student  body  which  is  so 
excreted.  In  an  early  chapter  we  have  already  dwelt 
somewhat  at  length  upon  this  trend  and  the  greater 
attention  which  has  been  given  to  the  furthering  of 
the  interests  of  those  forced  by  circumstances  or 
inclination  into  training  for  an  early  vocation,  en- 
trance to  which  must  be  made  through  the  second- 
ary schools.  This  increased  consideration  given  by 
these  schools  to  vocational  guidance,  however  inade- 
quately they  may  have  coped  with  the  problem,  has 
unquestionably  been  proper.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
equally  true  that  an  important  part  of  the  duty  of  a 
secondary  school,  perhaps  the  highest  duty  it  has 
to  perform,  is  to  hold  to  the  same  provision  for  the 
smaller  percentage  —  those  who  desire  to  reach 
higher  fields  of  learning;  in  other  words,  to  facilitate 
the  emergence  of  this  ambitious  and  more  fortunate 


208    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

smaller  percentage.  The  old,  absolute,  pre-profes- 
sional  ideal  for  the  secondary  schools  was  certainly 
productive  of  evil.  A  new,  absolute,  vocational  idea 
would  be  equally  disastrous.  Both  early  vocational 
and  pre-late  vocational  ultimates  must  be  reckoned 
with. 

Another  fact  is  outstanding  One  need  only  glance 
at  the  reports  of  the  State  Departments  of  Educa- 
tion throughout  the  country,  or  more  particularly, 
for  present  purposes,  the  report  of  the  Department 
of  Education  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, to  realize  how  numerous  are  the  discrepancies 
existing  between  the  best  and  the  poorest  of  the 
secondary  schools.  And  yet  the  University  group  of 
undergraduate  schools,  despite  this,  is  compelled 
to  accept,  or  rather  from  choice  does  accept,  largely 
without  discrimination,  the  output  from  all  the  sec- 
ondary schools  no  matter  how  poor  in  grade  they  be. 
At  times,  it  is  true,  discriminations  have  been  made 
against  graduates  of  certain  common  schools,  but 
an  examination  of  the  records  in  the  office  of  the 
Registrar  of  the  University  showed  that  such  were 
rare  occurrences.  Despite  this  fact,  many  of  the 
secondary  schools  are  distressed  if  the  University 
attempts  to  raise  its  standards,  and  the  University, 
at  times,  complains  of  the  slowness  with  which  the 
secondary  schools  meet  the  demands  of  higher 
standards. 


^OPPORTUNITY  FOR  THE  UNIVERSITY    209 

Here,  once  more,  were  departmentalization  ap- 
plied throughout  the  educational  system,  such  dis- 
crepancies existing  in  high  schools  and  such  dissen- 
sions between  these  schools  and  the  higher  institu- 
tions, into  which  they  feed  that  smaller  proportion 
of  their  products,  would  also  disappear.  And  with 
the  passing  of  these  would  go  the  waste  which  ac- 
companies the  attempts  of  teachers  to  make  the 
training  presented  in  schools  blanket  entire  incom- 
ing groups  —  groups  which  include  among  their 
members  those  trained  in  the  best  schools  and  those 
trained  in  the  poorest.  Courses  not  adapted  to  indi- 
vidual students  would  not  be  compulsorily  forced 
upon  a  student,  for  his  lack  of  receptors  for  these 
particular  courses  would  have  been  discovered 
earlier  and  shortly  after  his  entrance  into  those 
departments. 

At  the  risk  of  becoming  monotonous  by  repeti- 
tion, let  it  again  be  said  that  a  delineation  of  courses 
and  departmentalization,  if  attempted  eveli  in  the 
graduate  schools  and  higher  parts  of  our  educational 
equipment,  could  not  cease  before  it  reached  the 
very  foundation  of  the  entire  system.  The  plan  is, 
after  all,  but  the  application  of  the  principles  of 
modern  organization  and  human  economy  to  the 
educational  system  and  is  based  upon  economic  laws 
of  supply  and  demand. 

The  opportunities  open  to  the  University  of  Pitts- 


210    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

burgh,  were  it  to  undertake  such  a  venture,  we  are 
convinced,  would,  because  of  the  opportunity  for 
the  broadest  service,  first,  to  the  community  itself 
and,  second,  to  the  Nation,  be  greater  than  those 
possessed  by  any  other  institution  of  learning  in  this 
country.  Any  success  obtained  would  accrue  not 
alone  to  the  institution,  for  in  proportion  as  was  the 
institution  benefited,  in  like  proportion  would  bene- 
fits accrue  to  the  community  and  to  the  Nation.  The 
Pittsburgh  University  unit  is,  we  believe,  the  largest 
single  area  east  of  the  Mississippi  still  unsupplied 
with  an  adequate  equipment  for  higher  education. 
The  demands  of  metropolitan  Pittsburgh  alone  in 
the  special  fields  mentioned  would  be  sujfficient,  we 
believe,  to  furnish  work  for  a  powerful  university. 
What  greater  opportunities  could  be  desired 
for  any  university  than  these  open  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pittsburgh  —  opportunities  to  further 
the  welfare  of  all  the  members  of  the  community; 
to  increase,  by  assisting  all  rather  than  a  few,  the 
sum  total  of  human  happiness  within  the  borders  of 
its  unit;  to  undertake  intelligently  and  sympatheti- 
cally, first,  the  task  of  discovering  how  it  can  be  of 
service,  and  second,  how  it  can,  through  its  own  en- 
deavors, build  its  foundation  on  the  specific  needs 
existing  in  the  district  which  it  purposes  prima- 
rily to  serve I 


CHAPTER  XVn 

GENERAL   RECOMMENDATIONS 

In  concluding,  the  survey  organization  made  the 
following  general  recommendations :  — 

First :  That  a  group  of  men,  interested  in  further- 
ing the  welfare  of  the  Pittsburgh  community,  take 
upon  themselves  the  duty  of  establishing  a  muni- 
cipal foundation  for  the  study  and  advancement  of 
community  education. 

Second:  That,  if  possible,  this  foundation  be 
placed  in  residence  at  the  University  of  Pitts- 
burgh. 

Third:  That  funds,  adequate  for  beginning  the 
work  of  making  an  analysis  of  the  demands  of  the 
community,  be  provided. 

Fourth :  That  simultaneously  with  this  analysis, 
a  careful  study  of  the  present  supply  be  made. 

Fifth :  That  the  results  of  these  studies  be  tabu- 
lated and  published  for  the  enlightenment  of  the 
community. 

Sixth:  That  a  further  analysis  be  made  of  the 
requisites  of  ultimates  present  in  the  demands,  and 
that  the  results  of  this  analysis  be  made  public,  in 
order  that  proper  assistance  may  be  given  all  edu- 
cational institutions  operating  within  the  area,  to 


212    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

delineate  courses  which  shall  best  fit  for  the  ulti- 
mates  existing  in  the  demand. 

Seventh :  That  a  study  be  made  to  delineate  ad- 
ditional courses  which  are  beneficial,  in  order  that 
these  may  be  grouped  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  advan- 
tageously elected. 

Eighth:  That  the  foundation  begin  its  work  of 
departmentalization  within  the  University  itself, 
changing  the  present  university  organization  and 
placing  it  upon  a  departmentalized  basis  as  rapidly 
as  can  be  accomplished  without  revolution  and  in- 
jury. 

Ninth :  That  through  results  obtained  by  depart- 
mentalization here,  the  University  endeavor  to  ex- 
tend its  departments  through  the  secondary  and 
primary  schools. 

Tenth :  That  all  effort  be  exerted  to  bring  about 
a  thorough  departmentalization  with  the  establish- 
ment ultimately  of  a  board  of  departments  and  the 
application  of  a  democratic  representative  form  of 
government  to  the  educational  system  of  the  unit. 

Eleventh :  That  the  foundation  through  its  knowl- 
edge gained  develop  a  policy  not  only  for  the  Uni- 
versity, but  also  for  the  entire  system,  which  shall 
have  for  its  primary  consideration  the  supplying  of 
the  demands  made  by  the  bent  of  the  community. 

Twelfth :  That  existing  educational  organizations 
be  left  as  they  are  at  the  present  time  until  sufficient 


GENERAL  RECOMMENDATIONS         213 

knowledge  has  been  gained  by  the  foundation  in- 
telligently to  begin  the  work  of  realignment. 

Thirteenth :  That  every  effort  be  put  forth  to  se- 
cure the  cooperation,  not  only  of  the  local  board  of 
education,  but  of  all  organizations  and  bodies  which 
have  for  their  function  the  furthering  of  the  inter- 
ests of  the  community,  especially  the  Carnegie  Insti- 
tute of  Technology. 

Finally,  the  survey  urges  the  making  of  a  begin- 
ning, no  matter  how  small  that  beginning  be.  Such 
a  beginning  would  not  partake  of  the  nature  of  an 
experiment,  for  the  principles  upon  which  the  work 
of  a  municipal  foundation  for  the  study  and  ad- 
vancement of  community  education  would  be  based 
have  been  tested  in  other  fields  of  endeavor  and 
found  to  be  sound.  The  survey  organization  is  not 
minimizing  the  obstacles  which  would  of  necessity 
be  encountered.  But  it  believes  that,  by  steadily 
pursuing  the  course  outlined,  such  difficulties  would, 
one  after  another,  be  worn  away,  and  that,  in  the 
course  of  time,  with  the  increasing  success  of  the 
foundation,  the  Pittsburgh  community  would  come 
to  regard  its  educational  equipment  as  its  most  val- 
uable asset.  Furthermore,  each  part  of  this  equip- 
ment would  command  the  highest  respect  of  all  the 
members  of  the  community,  not  primarily  because 
of  its  power,  but  rather  because  of  the  service  which 
it  would  render. 


214    A  NEW  BASIS  FOR  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 

Provision  for  the  health  and  welfare  of  the  com- 
munity is  but  a  small  part  of  the  programme  which 
such  a  foundation  would  endeavor  to  carry  out.  Yet 
a  community  that  provides  itself  with  agents  pos- 
sessing a  social  sense  and  trained  to  car^  for  the 
health  and  welfare  of  its  populace,  and  in  addition 
provides  preventive  measures  in  the  midst  of  pe- 
culiar industrial  conditions,  will,  by  virtue  of  these 
provisions  alone,  be  the  great  community  of  the 
future.  We  believe,  furthermore,  that  in  each  com- 
munity, were  this  example  set  by  Pittsburgh,  there 
would  ultimately  appear  a  group  of  men  of  single 
purpose  whose  intention  would  be  to  further  the 
interests  of  their  own  community  in  the  same  way : 
a  group  which  would  recognize  the  fact  that  the 
only  foundation  for  an  educational  system  of  the 
community  is  one  which  will  stand  any  amount  of 
superstructure  and,  while  fixed  in  principle,  be  yet 
capable  of  expanding  and  retracting  upon  require- 
ment. The  time  will  certainly  come  whenever  such 
a  group  sees  that  the  principles  working  through  the 
vocational  group  are  those  which  apply  throughout 
the  professional  group  as  well,  and  that  the  line  of 
demarkation  between  professional  and  non-profes- 
sional is,  so  far  as  fundamental  principles  are  con- 
cerned, an  indistinguishable  one.  Surely  there  re- 
sides in  each  community  a  group  of  men  capable  of 
undertaking  such  a  project  and  willing  to  embrace 


GENERAL  RECOMMENDATIONS         215 

such  an  opportunity  for  service.  It  only  remains  for 
one  community  to  set  the  example  and  to  prove  by 
the  results  obtained  the  feasibility  of  the  plan. 

We  have  already  said,  and  let  it  be  here  reiterated, 
that  the  community  of  Pittsburgh,  because  of  its 
almost  unlimited  resources,  offers  many  advantages 
—  possibly  more  advantages  than  does  many  an- 
other community  —  for  the  projection  of  such  a 
plan.  Regardless,  however,  of  which  community 
first  makes  the  endeavor,  that  community  which 
does  will  in  a  short  time  be  far  in  the  lead  of  any 
others  which  may  come  to  embrace  a  similar  oppor- 
tunity later  when  the  advantages  become  more 
widely  known.  The  road  to  complete  success  in 
any  community  would,  of  necessity,  be  a  long  one, 
but  the  distance  to  be  traveled,  in  view  of  the 
immediate  beneficial  results  which  would  be  ob- 
tained, should  not  deter  from  the  undertaking  of 
the  journey. 


I 


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INDEX 


Acids,  191. 

Adenoids,  32. 

Administrators,  demand  for,  193,  194,  195. 

Air  brakes,  169. 

Albumins,  56. 

AlkaUes,  191. 

Alleghany  Mountains,  167. 

Allegheny,  166. 

Alumni,  records,  50;  not  entitled  to  special 
privileges,  101-02. 

Aluminum,  169. 

Ambridge,  166. 

America,  35,  43,  49,  60,  58,  59,  161. 

Analysis,  of  ultimates,  47-57,  145;  of  de- 
mands, 50,  138,  155,  180,  190,  211;  of 
demands  of  a  community,  51;  purpose  of, 
62;  leads  to,  53;  feasibility  of,  58;  of  com- 
munities, 59,  60,  63;  methods  of,  63; 
perplexities  of,  overcome,  64,  67;  im- 
portance of,  71,  93. 

Anatomy,  125,  127. 

Apprenticeship,  disappearance  of,  8,  13,  17. 

Art  goods  manufacturers,  170. 

Artificial  limbs,  manufacturers  of,  170. 

Asphalt,  191. 

Aspinwall,  166. 

Athens,  38. 

Autocracy,  in  boards  of  trustees,  33;  in 
presidents,  34-35;  evils  of,  how  pre- 
vented, 95. 

Automobile  industries,  173. 

Autonomy,  municipal,  2,  3;  in  Germany, 
4;  in  America,  6;  divisional,  54;  in  unit, 
66,  66,  67,  88,  107;  local,  and  equipment, 
80,  92;  in  board  of  departments,  146,  156; 
in  departments,  204. 

Avalon,  166. 

Awning  manufacturers,  169. 

Bakeries,  169. 

Baltimore,  9. 

Basis,  of  educational  reform,  47;  for  edu- 
cational system,  61;  class  distinction,  73; 
upon  units  might  jointly  operate,  93. 

Bathing,  81. 

Beaver  Falls,  166, 

Bellevue,  166. 

Ben  Avon,  166. 


Bent,  of  community,  17,  58-63;  determined 
by,  60;  determining  factor  in  specializa- 
tion, 62,  67;  and  university,  69;  differ- 
ences, 87,  89,  90;  reckoning  with,  92, 150, 
166;  and  curricula,  172;  changing,  172, 
173;  and  medical  equipment,  185. 

Bethlehem  Steel  Corporation,  173. 

Bibliography,  217-21. 

Biological  chemistry,  foundation  of,  66. 

Biology,  138,  189,  190,  197;  advances  in, 
SO,  31;  research  in,  32,  188;  demands  for 
men  trained  in,  182. 

Board  of  Departments,  145,  156,  212. 

Board  of  Education,  in  Pittsburgh,  171. 

Boards  of  trustees,  composition  of,  33; 
autocracy  of,  34;  as  debating  clubs,  35; 
function  in  past,  94;  and  municipal 
foundation,  113,  115;  in  University  of 
Pittsburgh,  203. 

Boston,  59. 

Braddock,  166. 

Brass  manufactures,  169;  wage-earners 
in,  180. 

Bread  lines,  15. 

Brick  manufacturers,  169. 

Bridgeville,  166. 

Bronchitis,  80. 

Bronze  manufactures,  169;  wage-earners 
in,  180. 

Brooks,  Phillips,  22. 

Bureau  of  Analysis,  118,  119,  155,  198. 

Bureau  of  Education,  Federal,  114. 

Bureau  of  Statistics,  119,  156,  157,  198. 

Bureau  of  Supply,  119-20,  156,  198. 

Butte,  Montana,  175. 

Calvarium,  125. 

Canada,  Royal  Commission  of,  11. 

Cancer,  83. 

Carnegie,  Pa.,  166. 

Carnegie  Foundation,  11;  surveys,  con- 
ducted by,  12,  175,  184. 

Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology,  76,  77, 
78,  192,  193,  213. 

Carrick,  166. 

Cellulose,  191. 

Cement,  191. 

Census,  64,  157,  168,  180. 


224 


INDEX 


Ceramics,  191. 

Chamber  of  Commerce,  88,  169, 180, 

Charity  aid,  10,  84. 

Charter,  for  foundation,  116. 

Chemical  literature,  191. 

Chemistry,  126,  138,  188,  189.  197,  201. 
202;  importance  in  study  of  human,  31; 
research  in,  32;  lesson  drawn  from,  47, 
66;  effect  of  discoveries  in,  125,  127; 
demands  for  men  trained  in,  182;  and 
industries,  190. 

Cheswick,  166. 

Chicago,  59,  173. 

Cholera,  72. 

Christianity.  37. 

Citizenship.  45.  61,  137.  139. 

Clairton,  166. 

Classicism,  end  of,  42. 

Qearfield  County.  167. 

Clothing,  47. 

Coal,  69.  169,  190,  197. 

Coke,  169.  191,  197. 

Colds,  80. 

Columbia  University,  92,  106. 

Commercialism,  end  of.  42. 

Commission,  Royal,  on  the  Poor  Laws  and 
Relief  of  Distress,  15;  quoted,  16. 

Commissioner  of  Education,  114. 

Communities,  bent  of,  17;  formation  of,  48; 
demands  of,  48-60,  66;  requisites  of  life, 
62,  63;  analysis  of,  65;  reconstruction  of 
equipment,  57;  demands,  analysis  of.  68; 
agents  in  individualizing.  69;  in  Pitts- 
burgh. 69-60;  waste  in,  78,  79;  and  unit 
plan,  84;  ultimates  of,  86,  87;  and  prog- 
ress. 91;  [demands,  how  supplied,  142, 
164;  Pittsburgh,  167;  staple  demands  in, 
182;  and  research,  191,  192;  of  the  future, 
214,  215. 

Competition  in  universities.  21;  in  private 
schools.  75. 

Confectionery  manufactures,  169;  wage- 
earners  in,  180. 

Confucianism.  27. 

Cooperative  courses,  43,  176. 

Coraopolis,  166. 

Cornell  University,  99. 

Correlation,  54,  67,  65,  67,  68,  75,  86-103, 
107,  108,  110,  123,  136.  164,  155;  in 
Pittsburgh,  176. 

Counties,  Clearfield,  167;  Crawford,  167; 
Preston,  167;  Ross,  167, 

Crafton,  166. 

Crawford  County,  167. 

Cretinism,  32. 

Criminal,  66. 


Cultural  group  in  education,  23;  warfare 
with  vocational  group,  24-25;  wed  with 
vocational,  44,  46,  214;  concessions  of, 
61. 

Curricula,  60,  61,  151;  of  Pittsburgh's 
schools,  172. 

Dawson  Harbutt,  quoted,  4-5. 

Degenerate,  56,  152. 

Delineation  of  courses,  18,  20,  21.  29,  30, 
32,  93,  120,  123-134,  153,  155,  194,  195. 
199,  209,  211.  212. 

Demand,  laws  of.  49.  199,  209;  analysis  of, 
60,  67,  107;  of  community,  61-66,  68, 
121,  177;  provision  for  special,  62; 
failure  to  recognize,  63,  174;  staple,  70, 
93;  agricultural,  193. 

Demands  of  Pittsburgh  conununity,  180- 
98. 

Democracy,  home  of,  35;  training  citizens 
for,  36;  safeguard  of,  94;  education  and, 
96.  160;  laws  of.  97;  soundness  of  prin- 
ciples. 146. 

Dentistry.  192,  193,  201. 

Departmentalization,  66-68,  93,  103,  113, 
129,  134,  135-18,  164,  174.  197,  199,  202, 
204,  205,  209,  212. 

Detroit,  59,  173. 

Diseases,  infectious,  social,  parasitic,  80, 
81;  cardiac,  arterial,  nephritic,  82;  tropi- 
cal, 90,  184;  occupational,  185,  187. 

Domestic  vocations,  192,  193. 

Donora,  166. 

Dormont,  166. 

Dravosburg,  166. 

Drexel  Institute,  28. 

Duncan,  Dr.  Robert  Kennedy,  121, 

Duquesne,  166. 

Dyes,  191. 

East  McKeesport,  166, 

East  Pittsburgh,  166. 

Economy,  160. 

Edgewood,  166. 

Edgeworth,  166. 

Education,  10,  169;  present  general  trend 
of,  11-24;  specialized,  16;  popular  con- 
ception of,  17;  chart  showing  trend  of, 
19;  present-day  influences  affecting,  25- 
36;  of  backward  children,  30;  effect  of 
research  in  biology  and  chemistry  on,  32; 
purpose  in,  36,  37-46;  definition  of.  37; 
appraisal  of,  38;  ideals  of,  38;  John  Mil- 
ton on,  39;  and  democracy,  160;  boards 
of,  171;  economy  in,  177;  and  the  ad- 
ministrative faculty,  196. 


INDEX 


225 


Education,  compulsory,  12;  result  of,  12; 
effect  of,  13,  20,  74. 

Education,  vocational,  24,  60,  174;  for 
surgery,  124,  125. 

Educational  system,  failure  of,  12,  14,  60, 
149,  150;  tests  of,  12,  13,  49;  results  of, 
15;  English,  German,  French,  American, 
16;  realignment  of,  24,  55,  62;  of  the  fu- 
ture, 40 ;  questioned,  43,  172;  inadequacy 
of,  43;  combinations  with  industries,  43; 
indictment  of,  44,  172,  173,  178;  duty  of, 
44,  62,  66,  72;  gravity  of  attempting  to 
alter,  45;  burdens,  47;  community  de- 
mands on,  48,  49,  54;  basis  for,  51;  func- 
tion, 52;  use  in  eliminating  the  undesir- 
able, 67;  uniformity  in,  63;  and  the  pri- 
vate school,  73-75;  bent  of,  89-91;  im- 
portance of,  112;  and  specialization,  128; 
and  time  boundaries,  135-36;  and  trade 
unions,  175. 

Educational  unit,  function,  62. 

Electricity,  182,  188-90. 

Elizabeth,  166. 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  22;  quoted,  164. 

Emsworth,  166. 

Engineering,  50,  126,  193. 

English,  137,  139. 

Engraving,  169. 

Equipment,  199;  of  individual,  63;  com- 
munity, 55;  change,  56,  57,  63;  for  unit, 
64,  67,  68,  82;  of  university,  69;  neces- 
sary amount  of,  how  determined,  71; 
maladaptation  of,  80,  81;  of  university 
unit,  89-92,  93,  168-59;  and  bureaus  of 
foundation,  119,  120;  common  school, 
135;  educational,  in  Pittsburgh,  170-72, 
213. 

Etna,  60,  166. 

Explosives,  191. 

Federal  Bureau  of  Mines,  192. 

Federal  Government,  88,  158,  198;  as  agent 
in  education,  104;  relation  of  foreigners 
to,  188. 

Fertilizers,  191. 

FinleyviUe,  166. 

Fire  bricks,  169. 

Fire-clay  products,  170. 

Flavoring  extracts,  manufacturers  of,  169. 

Flour  mills,  169. 

Food,  47,  81,  84;  preparations,  169. 

Foundation,  Municipal,  for  Study  and 
Advancement  of  Community  Education, 
87,  96,  104-122;  one  function  of,  123, 
124,  129,  133,  134,  146,  147,  154,  156, 
157,  169,  198,  199,  205,  211,  213-16. 


Foundations,  Carnegie,  11,  12,  105;  bene- 
ficiaries of,  95;  Russell  Sage,  11,  106; 
Rockefeller,  92,  106,  106;  Cleveland 
Foundation,  105;  contributions  of, 
106. 

France,  71,  127. 

Free  elective  system,  151. 

Froebel,  6,  31. 

Furniture  manufacturers,  170, 

Furriers,  169. 

Galvanizing  plants,  17C, 

Gary,  28,  92,  152,  173. 

Gas,  59,  169,  190,  191,  197. 

General  Education  Board,  11. 

Geography,  .137. 

German,  138. 

Gilman,  President,  9. 

Glass,  169. 

Glassport,  166. 

Glenfield,  166. 

Gonorrhea,  80. 

Government,  aim  of,  3;  of  university  unit, 

94-103;  subject  of,  137;  election  in,  144; 

of  educational  system,  144-48;  Emerson 

on,  164. 
Great  Lakes,  173. 
Greentree,  166. 
Gums,  191. 

Happiness,  how  gained,  38,  39;  short  cuts 
to,  40,  41;  aim  in  education,  42,  43;  sum 
total  increased,  44,  45,  156,  210;  analysis 
to  determine  nature  of,  47;  dependence 
on  group,  48, 49;  how  increased,  51, 52, 63, 
63;  and  mental  achievement,  72;  and  the 
function  of  the  university,  87;  further- 
ance of,  120,  128,  133,  134;  and  trade 
unions,  178. 

Harvard,  7. 

Haysville,  166. 

Hazelwood,  60. 

Health,  public,  41,  66,  64,  183,  214;  appli- 
cation of  unit  plan  to  field  of,  79-85;  de- 
mands for  men  trained  in,  182,  186;  how 
promoted,  187. 

Heidelberg,  166. 

Herron  HiU,  60. 

Histology,  201. 

History,  137. 

Holmes,  Oliver  'Wendell,  22. 

Holy  Land,  38. 

Homestead,  60,  166. 

Hookworm,  33. 

Hygiene,  137. 

Hyperpituitarism,  32. 


226 


INDEX 


Ice  plants,  170. 

Ideals,  37;  of  education,  38;  of  beauty  and 
duty,  39,  40,  41. 

Inbreeding,  in  universities,  96. 

Independence,  of  man,  47,  48;  limiting,  48. 

Industries,  and  educational  system,  43; 
special  courses  in,  44;  exploitation  of  uni- 
versity products  by,  44,  150,  152,  178; 
development  of,  49;  analysis  for  groups, 
60;  characterizing,  of  Pittsburgh,  59; 
progress  of,  under  unit  plan,  64;  effect  of 
founding  of  new,  71;  Louis  Pasteur  and, 
71;  value  of  Municipal  Foundation  to, 
122;  character  of,  in  Pittsburgh,  166; 
chief,  of  Pittsburgh,  169,  170;  and  edu- 
cational system,  173,  175,  176;  of  Pitta- 
burgh,  effect  on  demand,  181;  and 
schools  of  medicine,  185;  rights  of,  to 
resources,  187;  and  chemistry,  190. 

Infant  feeding,  10,  80. 

Ingram,  166. 

Internationalism,  building  unit  of,  1-10; 
relationships,  52,  67,  88,  111,  158. 

Iron,  58,  169,  190,  197. 

Jewelry,  manufacturers  of,  170. 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  9,  184. 
Junior  college,  153. 
Junior  high  school,  18. 

Knights,  38. 
Knoxville,  166. 

Labor,  organized,  and  law,  188. 

Lace  manufacturers,  170. 

Laundries,  169. 

Law,  182, 187, 188;  school  of,  in  Pittsburgh, 

189,  197,  201. 
Lawrenceville,  60. 
Laws,  of  supply  and  demand,  49,  54,  55, 

199,  209;  dearth  of  knowledge  of,  133; 

effect  on  educational  system,  150,  161; 

failure  to  reckon  with,  174,  177. 
Leather  goods  manufacturers,  170. 
Leetsdale,  166. 
Liquors,  distilled,  manufacturers  of,   170, 

191;  malt,  170. 
Literature,  chemical,  191. 
Lumber  products,  170. 
Lungs,  126. 

Macaulay,  Thomas  B.,  quoted,  35. 
Machinery,  electric,  169. 
McKees  Rocks,  60,  166. 
Mann,  Prof.    C.  R.,  76;  report  of,  quoted, 
77. 


Marble  and  stone  works,  170. 

Marshall,  John,  22. 

Maryland,  168. 

Mathematics,  137. 

Measles,  80. 

Meat  packing  houses,  169. 

Mediastinum,  126. 

Medicine,  school  of,  184;  Johns  Hopkins, 

184;  University  of  Pittsburgh,  186,  201. 
Mellon  Institute  for  Industrial  Research, 

121,  122,  189,  190,  196. 
Metallography,  191. 
Metallurgy,  191. 
Milan,  2. 
Millinery,  170. 
Millvale,  166. 
Milton,  John,  39. 

Mineral  water  manufacturers,  170. 
Mining,  192. 

Ministerial  influence,  7,  33. 
Models  and  patterns,  manufacturers  of, 

170. 
Monessen,  166. 
Monks,  38. 
Montana,  175. 
Montessori,  6,  31. 
Mount  Oliver,  166. 
Munhall,  166. 
Municipalities,  2,  3,  4,  5,  68;  growth  of,  49; 

and  unit  plan,  64;  characteristics,  59,  60; 

causes  for  waste  in,  76,  179;  educational 

system  of,  172;  changing  character  of, 

173. 
Mumps,  80. 

New  Brighton,  167. 

New  Kensington,  167. 

New  Orleans,  69. 

Newton  School  system,  report  on,  quoted, 

15. 
New  York,  28,  69,  107. 
North  Braddock,  166. 
Noyes,  Alfred,  quoted,  149. 
Nurses,  school,  81,  139,  186. 

Oakdale,  166. 
Oakmont,  166. 
Ohio,  167,  168. 
Oil,  59,  169,  190.  197. 
Osborne,  166. 

Paint  manufacturers,  169. 
Panacea,  61. 
Parkersburgh,  167. 
Parthenon,  41. 
Pasteur,  Louis,  71. 


INDEX 


227 


Pathology,  201, 

Pelvis,  145. 

Pennsylvania,  University  of,  7. 

Peritoneal  cavity,  125. 

Pestalozzi,  6. 

Petroleum,  191. 

Pharmacology,  202. 

Pharmacy,  193,  201. 

Philosophy,  changing  social,  41. 

Physicians,  school,  81,  139;  demands  for, 
182,  186. 

Physics,  138,  182,  188,  189,  190,  197. 

Physiology,  125,  127,  137,  201,  202. 

Pickling  and  preserving  plants,  170. 

Pitcairn,  166. 

Pittsburgh,  59,  76;  cosmopolitan  district, 
60;  the  community  of,  165-79;  metropol- 
itan district  defined,  166,  167,  168,  196; 
chief  industries  of,  169,  170;  board  of  ed- 
ucation in,  171,  172;  demands  of  com- 
munity of,  180-98;  as  example,  214; 
advantages  of,  215. 

Pittsburgh,  University  of,  28,  76,  77,  78, 
122,  176,  183,  185,  186,  189,  192,  193, 
195;  Department  of  Chemistry  in,  196; 
opportunity  for,  199-210;  Graduate 
School,  201;  residence  for  foundation, 
211. 

Plasmodium  malarise,  33. 

Play  schools,  31,  33,  152. 

Plebiscite,  71. 

Pneumonia,  80. 

Poets,  50. 

PoUtics,  effect  on  educational  institutions, 
25,  26. 

Population,  of  Pittsburgh  community, 
168. 

Port  Vue,  166. 

Practitioners,  100,  124,  134,  155,  184,  186, 
195;  canvass  of,  194. 

Preparedness,  158. 

Preston  County,  167. 

Princeton,  7. 

Printing  and  publishing  houses,  169. 

Private  schoob,  18,  73,  74,  75. 

Progress,  how  measured,  43;  course  of,  73; 
how  marked,  91;  important  factor  in, 
108;  and  revolution.  111;  due  to,  149;  in 
education,  151;  of  community  dependent 
upon,  183;  long  step  in,  189;  effect  of 
duplication  on,  203;  school,  205. 

Public  health,  41,  55,  64,  214;  application 
of  unit  plan  to  field  of,  79-86,  182,  183, 
186;  how  promoted,  187. 

Quintilian,  39. 


Rabies,  72. 

Radioactivity,  191. 

Radium,  169. 

Rankin,  166. 

Rattan  manufacturers,  169. 

Realignment,  62,  67,  119,  120,  166,  166, 

200,  213. 
Receptors,  128. 

Recommendations,  general,  211-15. 
Refrigerator  manufacturers,  170. 
Registrar,  204,  208. 
Research,  84,  186,  188,  189,  200. 
Resins,  191. 
Resources,  of  Pittsburgh,   168;  effects  of 

exhaustion  of,  173,  181,  182;  rights  of 

industries  to,  187,  188. 
Rochester,  166. 
Rockefeller,  John  D.,  11. 
Romance  Languages,  138. 
Ross  County,  167. 
Rubber,  191. 
Rural  schools,  17,  18. 

Sacramento,  61. 

Sage  Foundation,  Russell,  11. 

Sail  manufacturers,  169. 

Salts,  191. 

San  Francisco,  69. 

Sanitation,  191. 

Scarlet  fever,  80. 

Scholarships,  abuses,  25,  26. 

Schools,  function  of,  20. 

Schools,  junior  high,  18,  163;  rural,  17,  18; 
private,  17,  18,  73-76,  170;  engineering, 
50;  public,  74;  of  Pittsburgh,  170. 

Schurman,  President,  quoted,  98,  99, 

Sewage,  191. 

Sewickley,  166. 

Sharpsburg,  166. 

Shelter,  47. 

Shipbuilding,  170. 

Slaughtering  houses,  109. 

Soap,  191. 

Soap  manufacturers,  170. 

Soda-water  manufacturers,  170. 

Soils,  191. 

Soup  kitchens,  15. 

Space,  utilization  of,  28,  29. 

Sparta,  38. 

Specialists,  45;  age  of,  61,  184. 

Specialization,  138,  174,  178;  determining 
factor  in,  62;  trend  toward,  126,  128,  184. 

Springdale,  166. 

Spring  garden,  166, 

Starch,  191. 

State  aid,  27. 


228 


INDEX 


State  Universities,  political  entanglements 
of,  ^6. 

Statistics,  51,  54,  57,  81,  93,  139,  166,  165, 
16&-171,  181,  201,  211. 

Steel,  59,  169,  190,  197. 

Stein,  Baron  von,  4;  quoted,  4. 

St.  Clair,  166. 

St.  Louis,  59,  173. 

Students,  right  to  representation,  97. 

Sugar.  191. 

Supplement,  163-215. 

Supply,  laws  of,  49,  54,  55,  199,  209;  dearth 
of  knowledge  of,  133;  effect  on  educa- 
tional system,  150,  151,  177. 

Supreme  Court  of  Education,  94-96,  121, 
146,  156. 

Surgery,  83,  124-27,  184. 

Surgical  appliances,  manufacturers  of,  170. 

Surveys,  educational,  11;  of  education  in 
State  of  Vermont,  12,  175;  of  Medical 
and  Legal  education,  12;  Mann,  76-78; 
Report  of  Dispensary  Aid  Society, 
Tuberculosis  League  of  Pittsburgh,  84; 
of  public  schools  in  Butte,  175;  Univer- 
sity of  Pittsburgh,  200,  211. 

Suzzallo,  Dr.  Henry,  quoted,  14,  15. 

Swbsvale,  166. 

Syphilis,  80. 

Tableware,  169. 

Tanneries,  170. 

Tapeworm,  33. 

Tarentum,  166. 

Taxpayers,  29,  74,  99,  100,  101,  119,  206. 

Tent  manufacturers,  169. 

Therapeutics,  202. 

Thornburg,  166. 

Tile  manufacturers,  169. 

Tin  plate,  169. 

Tobacco  manufacturers,  169. 

Trades,  iron  and  steel,  59,  169. 

Trade  Unions,  13;  domination  of,  133,  175, 

177,  178. 
Trailer  sections,  152,  153. 
Travelers,  59. 
Trichina  spiralis,  S3. 
Tropical  diseases,  184. 
Tuberculosis,    10,    33,    80;    and   smallpox 

hospital,  81. 
Tulane  University  of  Louisiana,  184. 
Turtle  Creek,  166. 

Ultimates,  choice  of,  20,  39,  51;  in  educa- 
tion, 43,  44;  analysis  of,  47-57,  86,  199; 
individual,  51-54;  of  life,  56;  varying,  57, 
135;  and  the  educational  system,  70-72, 


87;  results  following  analysis  of,  123, 124; 
selection  of,  158. 

Unions,  13;  domination  of,  133;  and  educa- 
tional  system,  175,  177,  178. 

United  States,  58,  60,  114. 

United  States  Steel  Corporation,  177. 

Unit  plan,  3,  54,  63-72;  one  argument 
agaijist  success  of,  66;  wider  application 
of,  73-85;  attempts  to  apply  in  Pitts- 
burgh, 76;  need  for  application,  78-82, 
89-103;  and  exjjeriments,  105-06;  in 
Pittsburgh  community,  167-€8. 

University  extension,  159,  160. 

University,  influence  upon  national 
thought,  6;  government  and  administra- 
tion, 8,  98,  99;  failure  of,  8,  69,  151;  duty 
of,  9,  10,  183;  competition  in,  21;  politi- 
cal factor,  26;  function  of,  29;  autocracy 
in,  34,  35,  61;  how  reorganized,  36;  spe- 
cialization in,  61;  as  part  of  unit  equip- 
ment, 68,  70;  objections  to  unit  plan,  69; 
as  a  private  invader,  76;  residence  for 
Municipal  Foundation,  87,  108;  units, 
89-92,  96. 

University  of  Pennsylvania,  7. 

University  of  Pittsburgh,  28,  76,  77,  78, 
122,  176,  183,  185,  186,  189,  192,  193, 
195;  Department  of  Chemistry  in,  196; 
opportunity  for,  199-210;  Graduate 
School,  201;  residence  for  Foundation, 
211. 

University  unit,  structure  and  governance, 
86-103,  114,  116,  154;  of  Pittsburgh, 
167. 

Utilitarianism,  end  of,  42. 

Variances,  regional,  68-63,  150,  166;  not 
obstacles,  62,  63,  67;  in  curricula,  178. 

Varnish  manufacturers,  169. 

Venice,  2. 

Verona,  166. 

Versailles,  166. 

Visualizers,  184. 

Vocational  groups  in  education,  warfare 
with  cultural  group,  24-25;  provision  of 
teachers  for,  29;  wed  with  cultural,  44, 
45,  128,  214;  reply  to  culturalists,  61. 

VocationaUsm,  broadening  of  concept  of, 
21,  22,  23,  30. 

Vocational  training,  60,  174,  178-207,  208; 
for  surgery.  124,  125;  demands  for,  in 
Pittsburgh,  181,  183.  189. 

Wagon  manufacturers,  169. 

Wall,  166. 

Wall  plaster  manufacturers,  170. 


INDEX 


S29 


War,  1,  10;  impetus  given  to  surgery  by, 
H7;  and  the  Municipal  Foundation,  158. 

Warrendale,  166. 

Waste,  in  municipalities,  75;  by  duplication 
of  courses,  76,  78;  saved  by  bureau  of 
statistics,  157,  171;  in  education,  177; 
in  municipalities,  179;  utilization  of,  196; 
elimination  of,  197;  in  University  of 
Pittsburgh,  201,  202,  203,  208. 

Water,  191. 

Wedgwood,  Josiah,  22. 

Welfare  public,  55,  157,  210;  and  census, 
65,  66;  and  the  unit  plan,  79,  82,  83; 
student,  139;  demands  for  men  trained 
in,  182,  186;  how  promoted,  187;  and 
dentistry,  193. 


West  Elizabeth,  166. 

West  Homestead,  166. 

Westinghouse  Company,  177, 

West  View,  166. 

West  Virginia,  167,  168. 

Wexford,  166. 

WhiUker,  166. 

White  lead,  169. 

Whooping  cough,  80. 

Wilkinsburg,  166. 

Willow-ware  manufacturers,  169, 

Wilmerding,  166. 

Woodlawn,  166. 

Yale,  7. 


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U    .   S    .   A 


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